Herbert J. Klima *, * Akademie für Holistische Kultur Wien, **

Alexander Steinke  EL-Technologie GmbH

„Was heute noch als wahr genannt,

wird morgen vielleicht als falsch erkannt“

1. Einführung

Die „Dynamisierung von Wasser“ oder „Hydrodynamisierung“ ist eine physikalische Art der Wasseraufbereitung, die in einer «Dynamisierungsmaschine» durchgeführt wird. Dabei wird die flüssig-kristalline und damit geometrisch beschreibbare Clusterstruktur des Wassers durch mechanisch erzeugte Wirbelströmungen und schwache Magnetfelder physikalisch beeinflusst. Das Wasser erhält definierte Informationen: es wird dynamisiert.

Diese auf dem erste Blick komplizierte Darstellung der „Dynamisierung von Wasser“ wird aber verständlich, wenn wir – wie in der weiteren Folge gezeigt wird – die Bedeutung der verwendeten Begriffe klären. Jede Sprache verwendet Fachwörter mit entsprechender Bedeutung; wir gebrauchen täglich einige davon, machen uns aber selten Gedanken über deren Bedeutung und deren Zusammenhänge in Sätzen.

Um es aber vorerst auf einfache Weise zu sagen: „Dynamisiertes Wasser“ hat Eigenschaften, die denen des natürlichen Quellwassers gleichen. Welche aber sind diese Eigenschaften des natürlichen Quellwassers? Diese Eigenschaften wollen wir nun mit dem Begriff der Ordnung verbinden: man kann sie dann nicht nur verstehen, sondern sogar mathematisch unterlegen.

2. Was bedeutet Mathematik?

Was bedeutet der Begriff Mathematik? Im Griechischen bedeutet mathema bzw. maqemam die Wissenschaft, die Lehre, das Lernen. Mathematik kann daher als die Kunst des Lernens gedeutet werden. In maqema steckt auch thema bzw. qema das Gesetz, damit auch das Geistige und letztlich das Göttliche. In allen Kulturen, daher auch in den Hochkulturen der Babylonier, Ägypter und Griechen spielte das Göttliche, aus dem das Geistige und damit das Gesetz hervorging, eine zentrale Rolle. In dieser Hinsicht kann die Mathematik, die ursprünglich eine Schöpfung der Babylonier war, nicht von der Gottesgelehrsamkeit getrennt werden. Sie wurde danach vor allem von griechischen Philosophen (Thales, Pythagoras, Platon) übernommen und von den großen antiken Mathematikern (Euklid, Heron, Archimedes) in Alexandrien weiter entwickelt und kultiviert.

Das polare Gegenstück, das Komplement, zum maqema bzw. dem Geist, ist die Materie, die vor allem von den griechischen Materialisten (Leukipp, Demokrit, Aristoteles) als grundlegend favorisiert wurde. Berühmt geworden ist das so genannte Platonische Dreieck, das an der Basis die Begriffe „Geist“ und „Materie“ trägt – und an der Spitze das „Göttliche“ als „Platonische Ideen“. Wie sagte doch der kluge Scholastiker Petrus Abelard auf wunderbare Weise: „Die Platonischen Ideen findet man vor den Dingen (der Materie) als Gottes schöpferische Gedanken, in den Dingen als Ähnlichkeiten ihrer Eigenschaften und nach den Dingen als abstrakte Begriffe“.

Daher  kann es der Sinn und Zweck eines erfüllten Lebens sein, diese Polaritäten aus „Geist“ und „Materie“ zu überwinden und zur Einheit bzw. zum Ganzen, zur Spitze des Platonischen Dreiecks zurückzukehren: zum Göttlichen und seiner kosmischen Vernunft, wie sie auch als denknotwendige Wahrheit in der Mathematik und damit auch in der Geometrie vorherrscht.

Ein wichtiger Teilbereich der Mathematik ist nämlich die Geometrie. Was aber bedeutet der Begriff Geometrie? Im Griechischen heißt „geos“ die Erde und „metros” das Maß. Es liegt also ein göttliches Erdmaß im Wesen der Geometrie. Was  sich geometrisch verhält, hat daher viel mit Regelmäßigkeit und Ordnung zu tun, wie es auf ideale Weise in den fünf Platonischen Körpern als regelmäßige Polyeder (Tetraeder, Hexaeder, Oktaeder, Dodekaeder, Ikosaeder) verwirklicht ist.

3. Über die Energie und die Umwandlung ihrer Formen

Das Bindeglied zwischen dem „Geist“, der die ewigen kosmischen Gesetze repräsentiert, und der „Materie“, deren Wesen in der Veränderung liegt, ist die Energie. Einerseits hat die Energie Anteil an der Ewigkeit, da für sie der wichtigste Erhaltungssatz der Physik gilt, und andererseits hat sie Anteil am Wandel, da sie sich von einer Form in eine andere wandeln kann (Kernenergie, Sonnenenergie, elektromagnetische Energie, Bioenergie, mechanische Energie, Wärmeenergie etc.). Dabei gilt für die Richtung der Umwandlung der Energie ein wichtiges kosmisches Prinzip: das Prinzip der maximalen Entropie, das man auch Prinzip des Todes nennt. Nach diesem Prinzip erfolgt die Umwandlung der unterschiedlichen Energieformen in geschlossenen Systemen immer in Richtung zunehmender Unordnung, an deren Ende die Wärmeenergie und aus biologischer Sicht der Tod stehen.

Wird einem Stoff bzw. einer kristallisierten Materie – beispielsweise einem Wasserkristall – Wärmeenergie zugeführt, so verflüssigt sich der Kristall bei einer bestimmten Schmelztemperatur: die Regelmäßigkeit des Kristalls geht verloren, die Unordnung des Stoffes wächst. Wenn sich umgekehrt flüssige Materie – wie beispielsweise flüssiges Wasser – durch Abkühlung verfestigt und kristallisiert, so erfolgt eine Umwandlung in umgekehrter Richtung, nämlich in Richtung zunehmender Ordnung, wie man am nachfolgenden Bild eines wunderschönen Wasserkristalls sehen kann.

Bild1: Wasserkristall nach Masaro Emoto

Foto von Rasmus Gaupp-Berghausen Leiter des Labors von Masaro Emoto in Europa Hado Life Europe.

Die gleiche wunderbare Ordnung wie beim Wasserkristall gilt auch für einen Bergkristall, der aus Quarz bzw. kristallisiertem Siliziumoxid besteht. Er hat ein trigonales Kristallsystem, das eng mit dem hexagonalen System des Platonischen Körpers verwandt ist.

Bild 2 eines Bergkristalls

Wir wissen zwar aus Erfahrung, dass es niemals zwei gleiche materialisierte Bergkristalle gibt, dennoch legt uns die Geometrie nahe, dass jeder Bergkristall immer dieselbe geometrische Kristallklasse aufweist und mit dem Hexaeder der Platonischen Körpern verwandt ist.

4. Über die Ordnung der Kristalle und Salbung des Christos

Ein Kristall ist demnach ein materialer Ausdruck hoher geometrischer Ordnung und Regelmäßigkeit. Beamte und Priester als Hüter hoher gesellschaftlicher Ordnung (Pharaonentum, Königtum) wurden unter den Ägyptern und Babyloniern vom Herrscher (Pharao, König) zur Einweihung mit einem Salböl gesalbt, einer Mischung aus Olivenöl Myrre, Zimt, Kalmus und Cassia. Diese Salbung hatte die Aufgabe, die Ordnung der Herrschaft nicht nur zu bewahren, sondern sie zu optimieren. Einen derartig Gesalbten nannte die Hebräer später „Messias“, der von Jahwe gesalbt wurde, um das Reich Gottes auf Erden zu errichten und zu bewahren. Die antiken Griechen nannten einen Gesalbten „Christos“.

Jesus von Nazareth ist nach Auffassung der Christen der von Gott Gesalbte, den man im Griechischen „Christos“ und im Lateinischen „Christus“ nennt. Nach Auffassung der jüdischen Theologen ist Jesus jedoch nicht der Gesalbte bzw. Christos, weil auf Erden immer noch Unordnung, Krieg und Uneinigkeit herrschen.

Vor Tausenden von Jahren, als es noch gar keine Christen gab, nannte man schon im antiken Griechenland den Hüter der Ordnung „Christos“ – und dabei ging es den antiken Griechen nicht nur um die äußere Ordnung des Reiches, die es zu bewahren galt, sondern auch um die innere Ordnung des menschlichen Geistes, die man Bewusstsein nennt. Das eigentliche Ziel in einem Menschenleben war es, den inneren „Christos“ zu finden, zu heben und zu vervollkommnen. Der wahre Zweck des Lebens ist daher, dieses Christos-Bewusstsein so weit zu entwickeln, dass wir ein All-Bewusstsein bekommen, einen Christ-all.

Was ist nun ein Christ-all  bzw. Krist-all wirklich?  Welche Macht und welche Gesetze stecken dahinter, dass beispielsweise Bergkristalle einen so perfekten und immer gleichen geometrischen Aufbau haben. Und um diese Geometrie der Kristalle geht es uns hier, um die Form der Kristalle und um die Einflüsse, welche es ermöglichen, dass Kristalle in diese wunderbare Form gebracht werden: es geht um Information!

5. Über Information und Leben

Was ist Information überhaupt?  Dieses Wort drückt schon aus, was es bedeutet könnte: nämlich einen bestimmten Stoff in seine Form zu bringen bzw. wieder zurückbringen oder in einem Lebewesen Bewusstsein zu schaffen bzw. dessen Geist zu perzipieren..

Mit Information und Materie befasst sich nicht nur die Physik im allgemeinen, sondern auch die Biophysik im speziellen. Der Begriff Biophysik setzt sich zusammen aus den griechischen Begriffen βίος – bios, was „Leben“ bedeutet, und φυσική – physike, was „Natur“ heißt. Konventionelle Physiker verstehen unter Physik üblicherweise die „Lehre von der unbelebten Materie“ und traditionelle Biologen unter Biologie die „Lehre von der belebten Materie“. Es scheint daher, dass der Begriff „Biophysik“ zunächst einen Widerspruch in sich darstellt.

Allerdings muss beachtet werden, dass die Zellen aller Lebewesen – ob Einzeller oder Mehrzeller – aus unbelebter Materie (Atomen, Molekülen und makromolekularen Verbänden) aufgebaut sind. Die Grundprozesse der Biologie müssen also auch den Gesetzen der Physik gehorchen. Dazu zählt man nicht nur die Gesetze der Thermodynamik des Gleichgewichtes, die das schon angeführte Prinzip der maximalen Entropie bzw. der Unordnung als Prinzip toter Systeme enthält, sondern auch die Gesetze der Thermodynamik offener, dissipativer  Systeme fern vom thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht, die auch lebende Prozesse erklären können und für deren Entdeckung im Jahre 1977 der Nobelpreis für Chemie an den belgische Physikochemiker Ilya Prigogine vergeben wurde.

Begreift man außerdem die Physik im modernen Sinne als Wissenschaft von den Eigen-schaften und dem Verhalten der Materie und der Felder (somit generell von Stoffen, egal ob klassisch oder quantisiert) in Raum und Zeit, so wird klar, dass auch alle biologischen Prozesse den Gesetzen einer systemisch orientierten klassischen Physik und Quantenphysik genügen müssen.

Die Biophysik befasst sich daher mit den Zuständen und Zustandsänderungen des lebendigen Organismus, sei es bei Pflanzen, bei Tieren oder auch beim Menschen. Wenn wir bloß die Materie und ihre Felder betrachten, so müssen wir anerkennen, dass jede Materie und jedes zugehörige Feld – ob anorganisch oder organisch – aus so genannten Elementarteilchen wie Elektronen, Quarks und Photonen aufgebaut  ist. Diese Teilchen bilden schließlich Atome und Moleküle, zwischen denen elektromagnetische Feldquanten bzw. Photonen wechselwirken und die man für biologische Systeme auch „Biophotonen“ nennt.

Da Materie bzw. Masse m und Energie E untrennbar verbunden sind, wie man Einsteins berühmter Formel E = mc² (c ist die Lichtgeschwindigkeit) entnimmt, geht es in der Biophysik weniger um Energie, die ja eine Erhaltungsgröße ist, sondern um die Bereitstellung von Information für Organellen, die aus vielen Atomen und Molekülen sowie Makro-molekülen bestehen. Man kann diese Behauptung, wonach es in der Biologie mehr um Information als um Energie bzw. Masse geht, sehr dramatisch darstellen: wird ein Säugling geboren, so wiegt er beispielsweise 2 Kilogramm; stirbt er unmittelbar darauf, weil sein Herz versagt, so hat er noch immer die gleiche Masse, wie man durch Abwägen feststellen kann. Was also hat sich durch den Übergang von Leben in den Tod verändert? Es ist die Ordnung, die geordnet Form, die Information, die ein Lebewesen von einem Toten unterscheidet!

Da lebende Systeme überwiegend elektromagnetische Systeme sind, benutzt man zum Verständnis der Zustände und Zustandsänderungen biologischer Systeme in der Biophysik neben den physikalischen Gesetzen der Mechanik und Hydrodynamik vor allem die physikalischen Gesetze der Elektrodynamik bzw. der Quantenelektrodynamik. Gerne stellt man diesen physikalischen Disziplinen in der Biophysik noch ein „Bio“ vor und bezeichnet sie dann mit „Biomechanik“ oder „Bioelektrodynamik“, ähnlich wie man statt Photonen dann „Biophotonen“ sagt.

Das biologische Verhalten ist aber vor allem und überwiegend ein systemischer Prozess, der innig mit dem Informationsbegriff und Prigogines Gesetzen der Thermodynamik offener dissipativer Systeme zusammenhängt. Lebende Systeme müssen sich nämlich – wie es schon der geniale Physiker Erwin Schrödinger erkannte – fern vom Zustand der maximalen Entropie bzw. Unordnung aufhalten, um zu überleben. Sie müssen all die Entropie bzw. Unordnung, die ein lebendes System ständig zur Aufrechterhaltung der Gleichgewichtsferne bzw. des Lebens bei der Umwandlung der Sonnenenergie und der Nährstoffe in hoch geordnete biologische Strukturen (Eiweiß, Kohlehydrate, Nukleinsäuren, etc.) produziert, ständig los werden, indem sie diese Entropie in Form der Stoffwechselprodukte und der Wärme an die Umgebung ab- bzw. zurückgeben (als Kot, Harn, CO₂, Wärme, infrarote Wärmestrahlung).

Es geht demnach in der Biophysik nicht um die Energie, sondern um die Umwandlung der hohen Ordnung einer Energieform in eine andere, um ein biologisches System in die erforderliche hoch geordnete Form zu bringen und zu erhalten: um es zu informieren. Man nennt diesen Bedarf an hoher Ordnung in der Thermodynamik auch „Negentropie“ und in der Systemtheorie „Information“.  Den Pflanzen geht es dabei um die Umwandlung der elektromagnetischen Feldenergie der Sonnenstrahlen durch Photosynthese in die Negentropie bzw. Information der biochemisch gespeicherten Energie und um deren Bereitstellung für ihre Lebensprozesse (Aufnahme von Nährstoffen, Aufbau von Zellen und Pflanzenteilen,  Fortpflanzung etc.). Den Tieren und Menschen geht es um den Erwerb der Negentropie bzw. Information in der biochemisch gespeicherter Energie aus Pflanzen und Tieren der Nahrungskette und um deren Bereitstellung für ihre Lebensprozesse (Bewegung, Verdauung, Aufbau und Erhaltung von Zellen und Organen, Fortpflanzung etc.).

Negentropie bzw. Information sind damit fundamentale immaterielle Begriffe, die deutlich von dem materiellen Energiebegriff unterschieden werden sollten. Um Nachrichten bzw. Informationen wie Sprache oder Musik zu übertragen, benötigt man einen materiellen energetischen Träger, z.B. Schallwellen oder elektromagnetische Wellen wie Radiowellen spezieller Wellenlängen bzw. Frequenzen bei Hörfunk- und Fernsehübertragungen; um Informationen wie den genetischen Code als eine definierte lineare Folge von Triplets entsprechender Basenpaare von einer DNA auf eine RNA weiterzugeben, benötigt man materielle Nukleotide, die sich zur polymerisierten DNA verbinden.

Damit aber ein Empfänger eine Information aufnehmen kann, die ihm ein Sender übermittelt, müssen beide, nämlich Sender und Empfänger, in Resonanz stehen, d.h. die gleiche Trägerfrequenz verwenden. Der Fernsehsender 3sat, der vor allem für Zuseher aus Deutschland, Österreich und Schweiz sendet, benutzt eine Trägerfrequenz von 11, 95350 GHz = 11953500000 Hz bzw. Schwingungen pro Sekunde. Um aber die Ton- und Bildinformationen  von 3sat zu empfangen, muss man daher den Schwingkreis des Empfängers seines Fernsehgerät auf genau diese Trägerfrequenz einstellen, damit es zur Resonanz zwischen Sender- und Empfängerfrequenz kommt. Dann kann man auch durch einen passenden Knopfdruck auf den Kanal seiner Fernbedienung die gesendeten Informationen (Nachrichten, Musik, Dokumentationen, etc.) empfangen.

Bei jeder Informationsübertragung geht es darum, gleiche Wellenlängen bzw. Frequenzen unterschiedlicher Technik (Rundfunk, TV, automatisches Garagentoröffner etc.) zu benutzen, um in Resonanz zu geraten und die Informationen zu verarbeiten. Um beispielsweise ein Garagentor automatisch durch eine Fernsteuerung zu öffnen, müssen nicht nur die Trägerfrequenzen von Fernbedienung und Empfänger übereinstimmen, sondern der Empfänger muss die Information des Senders auch verarbeiten können – etwa durch einen Stromimpuls, der einen Schaltkreis schließt und einen Motor einschaltet, der das Tor öffnet.

Was aber hat dies alles mit der „Dynamisierung von Wasser“ zu tun? Lebewesen und damit auch Menschen bestehen zu einem großen Teil, bis zu 75 % , aus Wasser. Der Rest ist organische Materie (Proteine, Kohlenwasserstoffe, Nukleinsäuren, Lipide etc.) und anorganische Materie (Salze, Spurenelemente etc.). Der Grund für den hohen Anteil an Wasser liegt darin, dass Lebewesen als einzellige Prokaryoten im Meer entstanden sind. Proteine und Nukleinsäuren sind Polymere, die sich – wie uns der Nobelpreisträger Manfred Eigen hinterließ – in so genannten Hyperzyklen gemeinsam im Meerwasser besser reproduzieren konnten als jedes einzelne Polymer für sich. Eine Zellmembran aus Lipoproteinen umschloss dieses sich selbst reproduzierende System aus Meerwasser, Proteinen und Nukleinsäuren, das jedoch als offenes System auf die Negentropie bzw. Information des Sonnenlichtes und auf den Stoffwechsel angewiesen war, um den ständigen Bedarf an Materie (gelöste Stoffe) aus dem umgebenden Meerwasser für den Aufbau seiner organischer Bestandteile zu decken. Es ist in diesem Zusammenhang wichtig, wieder darauf hinzuweisen, dass die Sonnenenergie als Erhaltungsgröße schon bei den einfachen Einzellern nicht verbraucht, sondern nur die benötigte Negentropie bzw. Information bei der Umwandlung der Sonnenenergie in biochemische Energie gewonnen und verbraucht wurde!

6. Über dissipative Systeme

Um das Verhalten von Wasser in Lebewesen als offene Systeme zu verstehen, ist es empfehlenswert, die thermodynamischen Gesetze zu betrachten, die in offenen Systemen wirken, und sie von den thermodynamischen Gesetzen zu unterscheiden, die in geschlossenen und damit auch in toten Systemen vorherrschen. Flüssigkeiten als offene Systeme organisieren sich zu so genannten dissipativen Systemen, die durch eine hohe Ordnung ausgezeichnet sind und deren thermodynamisch-physikalisches Verhalten der bereits genannte Nobelpreisträger Ilya Prigogine untersucht hatte. Als bevorzugte dissipative Strukturen findet man so genannte bienenwabenartige Benard-Zellen sowie spiralige Muster, die mit Hilfe der Mathematik nichtlinearer Differentialgleichungen im Rahmen der Wissenschaft der „Nichtlinearen Dynamik“ nicht nur beschrieben, sondern aus den vielfältigen Lösungen dieser Gleichungen (z.B. periodisches, mehrfach periodisches oder chaotisches Verhalten) auch verstanden werden können.

Abb.3: Dissipative Flüssigkeitsstruktur (Benard-Zellen) einer erwärmten Flüssigkeit als offenes System,

sichtbar gemacht mit Aluminumpulver (links); dissipative spiralige Strukturen vom AMP, das von einzelligen Schleimpilzen bei Nahrungsmangel ausgesendet wird (rechts), um den mehrzelligen Verband zu bilden (rechts).

7. Über das Wasser

Die Dipolnatur von Wasser

Die physikalischen und chemischen Eigenschaften des Wassers[1],[2] können im Wesentlichen aus der polaren Natur des Wassermoleküls erklärt werden, das durch eine kovalente Bindung von zwei Wasserstoffatomen und einem Sauerstoffatom entsteht.

Die Verbindung von zwei Wasserstoffatomen mit einem Sauerstoffatom zu einem Wassermolekül kommt folgendermaßen zustande: Im atomaren Sauerstoff ist das 1s Orbital vollständig mit zwei Elektronen besetzt, das 2s Orbital ebenfalls, auch eines der drei 2p Orbitale ist mit zwei Elektronen gefüllt, die beiden anderen 2p Orbitale haben je ein Elektron. Die zwei fehlenden Elektronen können mit je einem 1s Wasserstoffelektron besetzt werden, womit ein sp-Hybridorbital entsteht. Der Sauerstoff ist elektronegativer als der Wasserstoff (H<C<N<O<F), wodurch sich  die Elektronenwolke aus den sechs Elektronen im sp-Hybridorbital polarisiert: die Ladungswolke wird stärker zum Sauerstoffkern gezogen, durch diese Symmetriebrechung wird ein elektrischer Dipol mit einer Ladungsverteilung Q⁺ und Q^- ausgebildet. Der positive Teil der Ladungsverteilung Q⁺ liegt in dem ursprünglich mit zwei Elektronen voll besetzten p Orbital, der negative Teil Q^- teilt sich auf die beiden anderen p Orbitale auf, die nun miteinander einen Winkel j von etwa 104 Grad einschließen[3]

Unter einem Dipol versteht man eine Ladungsstruktur, die zwei entgegengesetzte Ladungen Q⁺ und  Q^- gleicher Größe auf einem definierten Abstand r besitzt, die aber als Ganzes elektrisch neutral ist. Man charakterisiert einen Dipol durch das Dipolmoment m_e = Q. r, dessen Einheit [Coulomb.Meter] = [C.m] beträgt. Die Einheit von 1 Cm ist für molekulare Dipole viel zu groß, weshalb man das molekulares Dipolmoment in Debye [1 D = 3,3 10^-30 Cm] angibt. Der Dipolmomentbetrag des Wassermoleküls beträgt  m_e = 1,85 D, die Richtung liegt in der Winkelsymmetralen des Winkels, der von den beiden Wasserstoffkernen und dem Sauerstoffkern gebildet wird.

Die meisten Organismen bestehen zum Großteil (70 – 80%) aus Wasser, das jedoch kein träger Füllstoff, sondern eine sehr reaktive Substanz im intra- sowie interzellulären Bereich ist und den Aufbau biologischer Strukturen, aber auch den Ablauf biologischer Prozesse entscheidend mitgestaltet.

Diese Reaktivität liegt an den ungewöhnlichen physikalischen und chemischen Eigenschaften des Wassers, die sich alle mehr oder weniger leicht aus der Dipolstruktur des Wassermoleküls herleiten lassen.

Intermolekulare Wechselwirkungen

Zwischen den einzelnen Molekülen können anziehende Kräfte auftreten, die intermolekular wirken und zu Bindungen von Molekülkomplexen führen. Diese Kräfte, die im wesentlichen elektrodynamischer Natur sind, fasst man unter dem Terminus »Van-der-Waals-Kräfte« zusammen, ihre Bindungsenergien sind jedoch geringer als die Energien bei der Molekülbildung. So beträgt beispielsweise die Stärke der Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung von Wassermolekülen nur etwa 0,2 eV (d. s. 4,5 kcal/mol bzw. 18,8 kJ/mol) im Vergleich zur          0-H-Bindungsenergie von 4,8 eV (463 kJ/mol) bei. Die Reichweite von Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung ist proportional zu 1/r⁵, sie ist sehr kurzreichend. Dennoch führt diese intermolekulare Wechselwirkung  zweier Wasserdipole zur Bildung von beachtlichen Molekülkomplexen bzw. Cluster. Beispielweise liegt der Abstand des H-Atoms eines Wassermoleküls vom O-Atom eines anderen Wassermoleküls im Angströmbereich (10^-10 m). Diese Bindung ist jedoch nicht zeitlich konstant, sondern zerfällt nach etwa 10^-11 sec[4].

Eine spezielle Art einer Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung ist die Wasserstoffbrückenbindung. Tritt ein H-Atom mit einem elektronegativen Partner, etwa mit Sauerstoff in Verbindung, so entsteht ein polares Molekül, wobei das H-Atom den positiven Pol desselben bildet. Dieser Dipol kann ein weiteres polares Molekül anziehen, das dem gebundenen H-Atom seinen negativen Pol zuwendet. Die Annäherung beider Dipole kann auf sehr kleine Entfernung erfolgen (2,6 – 3,1 .10^-10 m), wobei sogar die Van-der-Waals-Radien unterschritten werden. Das weist darauf hin, dass bei der Bildung dieser Bindung außer der elektrostatischen Wechselwirkung auch kovalente Beiträge eine Rolle spielen. Bei genügender Annäherung beider Moleküle lässt sich letzten Endes das H-Atom nicht mehr eindeutig einem der beiden Moleküle zuordnen. Es gehört quasi beiden Molekülen gleichzeitig an und bildet eine Wasserstoffbrücke.

Die Bindungsenergie der Wasserstoffbrücke beträgt etwa 13 bis 25 kJ/mol und ist eine Funktion des Bindungsabstandes. Die H-Brücke kann aber schon durch thermische Stöße zerstört werden, die im biologischen Temperaturbereich auftreten. Die Bindungsenergie der H-Brücken ist nicht allein elektrostatisch zu erklären, sondern es müssen, ähnlich wie bei der kovalenten Bindung, quantentheoretische Aspekte miteinbezogen werden.

Die thermischen Strukturen des Wassers

Die Bildung von Eiskristallen, aber auch von wässrigen Flüssigkeitskristallen im Zustand des thermodynamischen Gleichgewichtes wird überwiegend durch die Dipolnatur der Wassermoleküle bestimmt. Nimmt die thermische Bewegung der Wassermoleküle ab, so ordnen sich die Wasserdipole zu einem fiktiven Tetraeder. Die Bindung der Wasserstoffbrücke H—O ist mit 0,177 nm geringer als die kovalente Bindung H __ O mit 0,099 nm. Die Fortsetzung der Tetraederstruktur führt zu einem Gitter, das beim Schmelzen des Eises nicht völlig abgebaut wird und sogenannte Cluster bildet.

Abb.4: Modell der Tetraederstruktur aus Wasserdipolen

Man nimmt an, dass die Zahl der Wasserdipole in der Nähe des Schmelzpunktes zwischen 100 bis 600 und beim in der Nähe des Siedepunkt zwischen 25 – 75 liegt. Die Wasserstoffbrücken oszillieren als Dipole mit einer Frequenz von 0,5. 1013 Hz. Die Clusterstrukturen sind aber nicht starr, sondern haben vermutlich nur eine Existenzdauer von 10^-10 bis 10^-11 s, so dass eine Wasserstoffbrücke im Mittel 100 – 1000 mal oszilliert, bis

diese Wasserstoffbrückenbindung aufbricht[5].

Im Unterschied zur Dynamik, deren Systeme meist eine überschaubare Anzahl N von Teilchen enthalten, handelt die Thermodynamik von einer riesigen Anzahl von Teilchen N. Beispielsweise befinden sich in 1 mol = 18 g flüssigem Wasser H₂O  (2 x 1 g Wasserstoff plus 1 x 16 g Sauerstoff) N_L = 6,022.10²³ Wassermoleküle.

Das in der Abb. dargestellte Beispiel von 1 mol = 18 g Wasser enthält N_L = 6,022.10²³ =  602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 Wassermoleküle, deren mittlere Geschwindigkeit <v>  = 467 m/s bei T = 20 ^oC und <v>  = 495 m/s bei T = 37 ^oC beträgt.

Abb.5: 1 mol = 18 g Wasser

Wie jeder Stoff kommt auch Wasser in drei Aggregatzuständen vor

• als Feststoff, Eis genannt                  => Kristallstruktur
• als Flüssigkeit, Wasser genannt         => Clusterbildung über Wasserstoffbrücken
• als Gas, Wasserdampf genannt         => Einzelmoleküle

Cluster-Strukturen von flüssigem Wasser

In der Folge sieht man drei Modelle von Wassermolekülen, die die Clusterstruktur des flüssigen Wassers illustrieren. Ständig werden Wasserstoffbrücken zwischen den verschiedenen Wassermolekülen gebildet und auch wieder gebrochen. Im Durchschnitt bleibt der Prozentsatz der an den Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen beteiligten H-Atome konstant, doch die einzelnen Bindungen ändern sich ständig. Nur im gasförmigen Zustand existieren tatsächlich einzelne diskrete Wassermoleküle. Somit sollte die Summenformel des flüssigen Wassers anstelle von “H₂O” wegen der Cluster-Bildung eigentlich lauten: (H₂O)_n

Abb.6: Modelle von dynamischen Cluster-Strukturen des flüssigen Wassers[6]

Abb.7: Modellcluster von Wassermolekülen und deren Schwingungs-Wellenzahlen bzw- -Frequenzen

Dichteanomalie des Wassers

Wasser zeigt bei der Temperatur von T = 4°C seine größte Dichte. Dies  ist eine Folge seiner Assoziationsfähigkeit mit Nachbarmolekülen, die bei T = 4°C die kompaktesten Cluster bilden. Bei Temperaturen größer als 4°C verhält sich Wasser normal, bei Temperaturen kleiner als 4°C verhält sich Wasser anormal: seine Dichte müsste zunehmen, tatsächlich nimmt sie ab.

Abb. 8 : Volumen und Dichte des Wassers als Funktion der Temperatur

Siedetemperatur des Wassers im Vergleich zu den Verbindungen der 6. Hauptgruppe des Periodensystems

Wasser als Wasserstoffverbindung des Sauerstoffs lässt sich gut mit anderen Wasserstoffverbindungen der Elemente der 6. Hauptgruppe des PSE vergleichen: während sich die Verbindungen H₂S (Schwefelwasserstoff), H₂Se (Selenwasserstoff) und H2Te (Tellurwasserstoff) gemäß der in dieser Reihe zunehmenden Molekülmasse durch steigende Siedetemperaturen erwartungsgemäß verhalten, macht die Verbindung Wasser eine Ausnahme. Als leichtestes Molekül, das den Stoff “Wasser” aufbaut, sollte Wasser eigentlich bei etwa T = -75°C sieden !!! Tatsächlich liegt die Siedetemperatur des Wassers bekanntlich bei T = 100 °C. Dies ist nur mit dem hohen Energieaufwand zu erklären, der zum Aufbrechen des Cluster-Netzwerks aus Wasserstoffbrücken notwendig ist. Gäbe es diese Erscheinung nicht, müsste Wasser trendgemäß bei der oben angegebenen sehr niedrigen Temperatur sieden. Leben auf dieser Wasserbasis wäre auf der Erde damit nicht möglich.

Abb. 9 :  Siedetemperaturen von Wasser (Sauerstoffwasserstoff) im Vergleich zu H₂S (Schwefelwasserstoff), H₂Se (Selenwasserstoff) und H₂Te (Tellurwasserstoff)[7]

Literaturhinweise zu dem Phänomen der Clusterbildung von Wassermolekülen

E. R. Batista,^(a) H. Jónsson,^(a) and S. S. Xantheas , Multipole Moments of Water Molecules in Clusters and Ice

William R. Wiley Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, April 10, 2000

Supported by the Division of Chemical Sciences, Office of Basic Energy Sciences and the Division of Environmental Sciences, Office of Biological and Environmental Research (Atmospheric Chemistry) in DOE, and by a grant of computer time at the NERSC by the Office of Scientific Computing, DOE.                                                                                               (a) Department of Chemistry, University of Washington.

The study of small clusters of water provides useful information regarding the transition from the gas to bulk phase environments. Of particular importance is the magnitude of the nonadditive many-body interaction in the clusters and in bulk environments such as water and ice. These nonadditive effects are usually accounted for by polarizable water models via an induction scheme in which the dipole moment on each molecule is computed self-consistently. Although the individual dipole moment of a system of more than two water molecules is not an observable, a rough estimate of its variation between different environments such as clusters, interfaces and/or water/ice serves as an indication of the importance of non-additive effects and how well these are reproduced by the various polarizable water models.

A previous induction-model study (Coulson and Eisenberg 1966) suggested a value of 2.6 D for the molecular dipole moment of water in ice Ih. This value has been used extensively in recent years as a reference point in the development of various polarizable interaction potentials for water as well as for assessment of the convergence of water cluster properties to those of bulk. We have used an induction model including dipole, dipole-quadrupole, quadrupole-quadrupole polarizability and first hyperpolarizability as well as fixed octopole and hexadecapole moments to study the electric field in ice. The self-consistent induction calculations gave an average total dipole moment of 3.09 D, a 67% increase over the dipole moment of an isolated water molecule and a value significantly (~0.5 Debye) larger than the one previously proposed by Coulson and Eisenberg (see Figure 6.16). The reason for this difference is not due to approximations made in the computational scheme of Coulson and Eisenberg but rather due to the use of less accurate values for the molecular quadrupole moment in these earlier calculations. Our induction scheme produces a value of 2.75 Debye for the average molecular dipole in the water hexamer, a value that is smaller than the one for ice Ih as expected from the different nearest and distant environments in these two systems.

The convergence of the calculated molecular dipole moment as a function of the cutoff distance used in summing up the electric potential due to the neighbors indicates that it is sufficient to include only neighbors that are closer to 7 Å when evaluating the electric field at a given molecule. “Effective convergence” to the ice value has therefore been reached for a sphere of this radius around a water molecule that includes about 80 molecules in the ice Ih lattice.

Chaplin, M. F. A proposal for the structuring of water

Biophys. Chem., 83 (3), (2000), 211-221.

In spite of much work, many of the properties of water remain puzzling. A fluctuating network of water molecules, with localised icosahedral symmetry, is proposed to exist derived from clusters containing, if complete, 280 fully hydrogen-bonded molecules. These are formed by the regular arrangement of identical units of 14 water molecules that can tessellate locally, by changing centres, in three-dimensions and interconvert between lower and higher density forms. The structure allows explanation of many of the anomalous properties of water including its temperature-density and pressure-viscosity behaviour, the radial distribution pattern, the presence of both pentamers and hexamers, the change in properties and `two-state’ model on supercooling and the solvation properties of ions, hydrophobic molecules, carbohydrates and macromolecules. The model described here offers a structure on to which large molecules can be mapped in order to offer insights into their interactions.

Marcus Svanberg, Liu Ming, Nikola Markovic, and Jan B. C. Pettersson
Collision dynamics of large water clusters

Journal of Chemical Physics 108(14), (1998) 5888-5897.
Classicaltrajectory calculations of (H₂O)_n + (H₂O)_n collisions are carried out for n = 125and n = 1000. We investigate energy redistribution and fragmentation behavior forrelative collision velocities up to 3000 ms ^{– 1}, impact parameters up to4 nm, and initial cluster temperatures of 160 and 300K. Three main scattering channels are identified; coalescence, stretching separation,and shattering collisions. For small impact parameters, low collision velocitiesproduce coalesced clusters while high velocities yield shattering behavior. Largeimpact parameters combined with high velocities result in stretching separationcollisions. A decreased internal temperature influences the dynamics by increasingthe stability of the collision complex. The results for (H₂O)₁₂₅and (H₂O)₁₀₀₀ are comparable, although the smaller size allows individualmolecules to have a larger influence on the overall behavior.We find good agreement between the cluster simulations and experimentaldata for water drops in the micrometer range concerning thetransition between coalescence and stretching separation, which shows that theclusters in some respects resemble “macroscopic” objects. ©1998 American Instituteof Physics.

Shinji Saito and Iwao Ohmine

Dynamics and relaxation of an intermediate size water cluster (H₂O)₁₀₈
Journal of Chemical Physics Vol 101(7) (1994) 6063-6075

Thepotential surface, melting, surface structure, and hydrogen bond network ofan intermediate size water cluster (H₂O)₁₀₈ are investigated. The orientationrelaxations of single molecule and of collective molecules are analyzedand compared with those of liquid water. The collective orientationrelaxation (COR) (i.e., dielectric relaxation) of the water cluster isfound to be much faster than that of liquid waterdue to different boundary conditions. In both liquid and cluster,the cross correlation between individual molecular dipoles plays an importantrole in static and dynamic quantities. COR of the clusteryields a so-called 1/f fluctuation in contrast to the well-knownDebye relaxation in liquid water. In order to understand thesedifferences of COR between the water cluster and liquid water,the wave vector dependence of the transverse and longitudinal componentsof COR is examined. A surface effect on hydrogen bondnetwork and the correlation between structural change and coordination numberare analyzed.

J. Brudermann¹, P. Lohbrandt¹, V. Buch² und U. Buck¹ ; ¹MPI für Strömungsforschung, Bunsenstr. 10, 37073 Göttingen; ²The Fritz Haber Institute for Molecular Dynamics, Jerusalem 91904, Israel

Untersuchung von Oberflächenschwingungen großer Wassercluster durch ineleastische Helium-Streuung Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft e.V (DPG) Frühjahrstagung 1998, Sitzung MO7 – Poster: Cluster

In einem gekreuzten Molekularstrahlexperiment wurde ein He-Atomstrahl bei thermischen Energien (ca. 65 meV) inelastisch an einem (H₂O)_n (n £ 100) Clusterstrahl gestreut. Der Cluster wird dadurch schwingungsangeregt. Die Analyse der übertragenen Energien bei verschiedenen Ablenkwinkeln mithilfe der Flugzeitmethode ergibt Energieüberträge im Bereich von 5-40 meV.  Um den Anregungsprozeß und die angeregten Schwingungen zu verstehen wurden zunächst Clusterstrukturen und Schwingungsspektren des Clusters mit klassischen Verfahren bestimmt. Weiterhin wurden Querschnitte für die Stoßanregung verschiedener Moden (Energien) mit Hilfe von Normalmodenanalyse und zeitabhängiger Störungsrechnung berechnet. Diese Berechnungen ergaben, dass sich die gemessenen Verteilungen durch die Anregung von Winkelschwingungen d. O-Atome in 3-fach koordinierten Wassermolekülen an der Oberfläche erklären lassen.

8. Über die Dynamisierung von Wasser

Generell lässt sich über die hydrodynamische Aufbereitung bzw. „Hydrodynamisierung“ von Wasser nur sagen, dass – abgesehen von chemischer Veränderung durch gelöste Stoffe wie Chlor, Mineralien etc. – im Grunde nur die Dynamik der Wassercluster beeinflussbar ist. Dies kann auf thermische Weise geschehen, indem man die Temperatur erhöht, womit nicht nur die Cluster, sondern auch die Anzahl der Dipole in den Clustern reduziert wird; dies kann auch auf mechanische Weise geschehen, indem man die dynamischen Wassercluster „aufbricht“ und damit mehr freie Wasserdipole erzeugt; dies kann aber auch auf elektrodynamische Weise erfolgen, indem man über elektrische und magnetische Gleich- oder Wechselfelder auf die dynamische Organisation der Dipole, z.B. auf die „dissipativen Strukturen“ bzw. Cluster im Wasser als offenes System Einfluss ausübt. Alle diese hydrodynamischen Aktivierungen des Wassers, ob thermisch, mechanisch oder elektrodynamisch, haben vermutlich nicht unterschätzbare Einflüsse auf die Prozesse in biologischen Systemen, ob auf die Keimung von Pflanzen oder auf die Pulsdynamik von Menschen nach dem Trinken derartig aufbereiteter Wässer, wie auch unsere Untersuchungen zeigten.

Man kann Wasser hydrodynamisch aufbereiten, wenn man sich einer der genannten Methoden (thermisch, mechanisch, elektrodynamisch) bedient. Lässt man Sonnenlicht auf Wasser einfallen, so wird es sowohl thermisch als auch elektrodynamisch beeinflusst. Anstelle von sichtbarem Sonnenlicht mit geringen Anteilen an Ultraviolett und Infrarot kann man aber auch andere Lichtquellen verwenden, die ein anderes Spektrum an elektro-magnetischen Wellen aufweisen. Mit geeigneten mechanischen Geräten kann man Wasser stark verquirreln und damit „dynamsieren“ kann. Da jeder Schall einen mechanischen Einfluss darstellt, eignen sich auch Schallquellen unterschiedlicher Art, die nur die Fähigkeit besitzen müssen, genügende Kräfte auf die Wasserstoffbrücken zwischen den Wasserdipolen auszuüben. Da die Wassercluster nicht statisch sind, sondern dynamisch fluktuieren, kann man die Dynamik der Cluster auch durch entsprechende intensive Musik beeinflussen, deren Rhythmen und Harmonien sich dann teilweise in den dynamisch „tanzenden“ Wasserclustern wiederfinden können.

Derartige rhythmisch-harmonische Beeinflussungen von Wasser kann man mit elastischer Lichtstreuung, die den Laser-Doppler-Effekt verwendet, untersuchen. Eine entsprechende Untersuchungsmethode wurde ausgearbeitet und bietet sich interessierten Institutionen bzw. Unternehmen an, die besondere Methoden und Geräte der Wasseraktivierung betreiben.

Hydrodynamisch aufbereitetes Wasser kann man überall dort mit Vorteil verwenden, wo Wasserbedarf ist: in der Landwirtschaft, in der Ernährungswirtschaft, in der Medizin, in der industriellen und privaten Wasserversorgung, in der Bauindustrie, etc. Es gibt daher kaum einen Kulturbereich der Menschheit, wo nicht Wasserbedarf vorhanden ist. Überall dort kann man hydrodynamisch aufbereitetes Wasser verwenden – vorausgesetzt, dass es vorher wissenschaftlich untersucht wurde!

Selbstorganisation von Wasser

Man muss zwei Arten der Selbstorganisation von Wasser unterscheiden. Die eine Art ist thermisch bedingt und kommt für geschlossene Systeme durch das Spiel gegensätzlicher Kräfte zustande, nämlich von Dipol-Dipol-Wechselwirkung der Wassermoleküle einerseits und thermischer Bewegung mit Boltzmann-Verteilung der Wasserdipole bei bestimmten Temperaturen andererseits. Das Ergebnis bzw. Ziel dieser thermischen Selbstorganisation sind chaotisch und statistisch fluktuierende Wassercluster.

Die andere Art der Selbstorganisation ist das Ergebnis eines Nichtgleichgewichts-Prozesses von Wasser als offenes System. Dazu werden die Wasserdipole einem Gradienten (Temperatur, elektrische oder magnetische Felder, Gravitation) unterworfen und beginnen, sich als offenes System selbst zu organisieren. Diese Selbstorganisation mündet nach den Erkenntnissen der Nichtgleichgewichts-Thermodynamik (berühmte Vertreter dazu sind Hermann Haken und Ilya Prigogine) in einer kohärenten Bewegung der Wasserdipole und deren Cluster. Das Ziel dieser nichtthermischen Selbstorganisation ist Kohärenz bzw. Ausbildung hoch geordneter Strukturen, die man auch „dissipative Strukturen“ nennt. Diese Art der Selbstorganisation spielt bei der hydrodynamischen Wasseraufbereitung wie auch in lebenden Zellen als offene Systeme eine wesentliche Rolle.

Da Wasser neben Luft und den Gesteinen zu den grundlegenden Sphären auf dem Planeten Erde gehört, sind alle Organismen, daher auch die Menschen am Wesen des Wassers interessiert. Hydro-, Atmo-, Litho- und Biospäre der Erde sind untrennbar miteinander verbunden und bilden einen großen Organismus, den man seit James Lovelock „Gaia“ nennt. Diese vier Sphären und damit „Gaia“ stehen als offenes, dissipatives System seit Jahrmilliarden unter dem Einfluss des Sonnenlichtes und bilden eine evolvierende Ganzheit weit weg vom thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht. Dabei wird die hochgeordnete Energie des Sonnenlichtes in niedrig geordnete Wärmeenergie umgewandelt bzw. dissipiert und vor allem als infrarote Wärmestrahlung in den Kosmos abgestrahlt.

Dissipative Systeme – und dazu gehört nicht nur die Erde als Ganzheit, sondern auch die Hydrosphäre – sind weit weg vom thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht und haben gleichsam ein so genanntens „Gedächtnis“, was man stochastisch mit Nicht-Markov-Prozessen beschreibt, – im Gegensatz zum thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht, dessen Systeme Markov-Prozessen genügen und kein „Gedächtnis“ besitzen. Dabei versteht man im allgemeinen unter „Gedächtnis“, dass die Ursache für ein eingetretenes Ereignis nicht unmittelbar aus dem vorhergehenden Ereignis hervorgeht, sondern aus Ereignissen, die je Speicherfähigkeit des Systems, weiter in der Vergangenheit zurückliegen.

Die radioaktive Strahlung genügt beispielsweise einem Markov-Prozess (dN/dt = lN  => N = N_oe^-lt), bei dem die Zerfallsrate dN/dt nur von der Anzahl N momentan vorhandener Atomkerne abhängt, wobei anfänglich zur Zeit t = 0 eine Anzahl N = N_o vorhanden war, und der daher nach einer Exponentialfunktion abfällt. Die Photolumineszenz lebender Systeme genügt hingegen einem kohärenten Nicht-Markov-Prozess, der nach einer hyperbolischen Funktion abfällt. Mit Hilfe der Kinetik der Photolumineszenz von Wasser kann man daher auch das sogenannte „Gedächtnis“ von Wasser untersuchen: ist der zeitliche Abfall exponentiell, dann hat es kein „Gedächtnis“, ist er beispielsweise hyperbolisch, dann kann man dem Wasser so etwas wie „Gedachtnis“ zuordnen – jedoch nur in einem analogen Sinn.

9. Biophysikalische Methoden der Wasseruntersuchung

Spektralphotometrische Methode:

Einer der Entwickler EL Technologie ist Alois Gruber. Im Atominstitut der Österreich Universitäten, A-1020 Wien, Stadionallee 2 Projektleiter Prof. Dr. H. Klima, hat im Jahr 2003 Untersuchungen mit Wasserproben durchgeführt, die nach verschiedenen Methoden (Hacheney, Alois Gruber, AROPUR) hydrodynamisch aufbereitet bzw. aktiviert wurden. Als physikalische Nachweismethode für mögliche Einflüsse der oben genannten „Aktivierungen“ verwendeten wir die Spektralphotometrie. In der folgenden Abbildung sieht man die Änderung der Transmissionsspektren einer dynamisch aufbereiteten Wasserprobe gegenüber der nicht aufbereiteten Kontrolle.

Abb.11: Eine einzelne Kurve drückt Änderung des Transmissionsspektrums einer hydrodynamisch aufbereiteten Wasserprobe gegenüber der nicht aufbereiteten Kontrolle im Bereich von 200 nm bis 1300 nm aus.

• Die relaxierenden Kurven sind Messergebnisse derselben Probe an vier aufeinanderfolgenden Tagen.

Biophysikalische Methode der Biophotonen

Bild 12.: Sojabohnen-Keimlinge am 3. Tag der Aufzucht mit unbehandelten Kontrollen

in der linke Schale und von „Dynamisierung Gerät“- behandelten Proben in der rechten Schale

Zur quantitativen Beurteilung der Keimung von Sojabohnen wurden deren Photonenemission nach Lichtanregung, d.h. deren abklingende Photolumineszenz gemessen, und daraus deren relative Photonenemission berechnet, indem jeder Messwert durch den Anfangswert dividiert wurde. Anstelle des gesamten Abklingverhaltens kann man auch die relative Photonen-emission nach einer bestimmten Abklingszeit betrachten, beispielsweise nach 100 Sekunden. Diese Prozedur lässt sich für einige Tage während der Keimung der Sojabohnen durchführen.

Bild13:Relative Photonenemission von Sojabohnenkeimlingen nach 100 Sekunden Messdauer für unbehandelte Kontrollen (rot) und von „Dynamisierung Gerät“- behandelte Proben (grün), gemessen vom 2. bis 6. Keimtag

In der obigen Abbildung 7 ist die nach einer Abklingzeit von 100 s bestimmte, relative Photonenemission einer Messreihe für den 2. bis zum 6. Keimtag graphisch dargestellt. Die Photonenemission der mit Gruber Gerät -Wasser gekeimten Probe (grüne Balken) unterscheidet sich insbesondere am 3. Keimtag von der unbehandelten Kontrolle (rote Balken).

Physiologische Methode der Pulsplethysmographie

Die Pulsplethysmographie (PPG) ist eine nichtinvasive medizinische Methode zur Untersuchung der peripheren Durchblutung (Pulsdynamik). Sie wird biophysikalisch mittels photometrischer Messtechnik durchgeführt. Dazu wird auf den Zeigefinger der Probanden ein PPG-Meßsensor (Nellcor DS-100A), bestehend aus Leuchtdiode, Phototransistor und Halterung, geklemmt.

Das Licht der Leuchtdiode durchleuchtet dabei die winzigen peripheren Blutgefäße.

Diese ändern ihren Querschnitt je nach Einfluss durch die Wirkung von Hacheney-aktiviertem Wasser und verändern damit die Menge des durchgelassenen Lichtes.

Dieses Licht fällt auf eine Fotodiode und erzeugt damit das elektrisches PPG-Signal.

Abb.14: Typisches Plethysmogramm eines Menschen vor (schwarz) und nach (grün) dem Trinken von Wasser

Zur Quantifizierung der Plethymogramme verwendeten wir nichtlineare Methoden der Zeitreihenanalyse, nämlich

* “Attractor Reconstruction” nach F. Takens, in „Dynamical Systems and Turbulence“, Eds. D.A.Rand, L.S.Young, Lect. Notes in Math. 898, Springer, Berlin 1981, pg. 366

* „Recurrence Plot Analysis“ nach J.P.Eckmann, D. Ruelle, Europhys. Lett. 4 (1987) ).

Damit lassen sich folgende Maßzahlen bestimmen:

% Recurrence             = ähnliche Systemzustände : alle Systemzustände

# Lines                        = Anzahl w_i  vorgegeb. Linien [gleiche Systemzustände]

% Determinismus       = Anzahl gleicher Zustände (Linien) :  Anzahl ähnlicher Zustände

Ratio                           = % Determinismus : % Recurrence

Entropie                      = Shannon-Entropie: S = S w_i ln w_i (Einheit: bit)

Trend                          = Gradient der %-Recurrence (d/dr mit r als Abstand von Diagonalen)

Standardabweichung  = statistische Schwankung der Datenpunkte in der Zeitreihe

Divergenz                   = Inverse der Länge der längsten Linie (Lyapunov-ähnliches Maß)

Abb.15: Nichtlineare Analyse der Plethysmogramme von Probanten, die hydrodynamisch aufbereitetes tranken (grün) und unaufbereitetes Wasser (rot)

Die nichtlineare Analyse, insbesondere deren quantitatives Maß „Ratio“, zeigt den Einfluss von hydrodynamisch nach der Methode von Hacheney aufbereitetem Wasser auf die Photoplethysmogramme von Probanden.

Sensorische Methode der Dreiecksprüfung

Die sensorische Methode der Dreicksprüfung ist eine Standardmethode in den Ernährungswissenschaften. Der Test prüft zwei ähnlich schmeckende Proben P und K

Dazu werden zertifizierten Prüfern jeweils drei Proben in mehreren Serien zum Verkosten vorgelegt. Jede Serie besteht aus einer Anordnung von zwei gleichen und einer verschiedenen Probe. Insgesamt gibt es 6 Anordnungen (PPK, PKP, KPP, KKP, KPK, PKK). Die Aufgabe besteht darin, die unterschiedliche Probe zu erkennen Die Auswertung und Ermittlung der Signifikanz der Testergebnisse erfolgt mit der Binomialverteilung.

Retzer Trinkwasser wurde 1 Stunde vor Beginn der Untersuchung mittels eines Kunststoffschlauches (Firma Tygon, chemisch inert), durch das beigestellte „Dynamisierung” Gerät – ¾“  unter normalem Leitungsdruck und bei normaler Leitungswasser-Temperatur geleitet, für 5 Minuten gespült und danach in vier Einliter-Glasflaschen als Probe P aufbewahrt. Das gleiche Retzer Trinkwasser als Kontrolle K wurde ohne „Dynamisierung”

- Gerät unmittelbar in vier gleichen Einliter-Glasflaschen aufbewahrt. Die Durchführung der Dreiecksprüfung an der Lehranstalt  für Tourismus im Landesweingut Retz wurde unter folgenden Bedingungen durchgeführt:

• Die 6 Prüfer dürfen keinen Sichtkontakt zueinander haben, sondern nur zum Prüfleiter.
• Sensorisch neutrale, gleichartige Gläser (alle mit a, b und c markiert)
• Proben P und Kontrolle K müssen exakt die gleiche Temperatur haben (gemessen)
• Redeverbot während der Bewertung
• Frische Luft  im Prüfraum (keine Fremdgerüche)
• Die drei Gläser a, b, c am Tisch vor dem Prüfer haben voneinander einen Abstand von mindestens 50 cm
• Während der Bewertung darf nichts (Brot, Wasser, etc.) konsumiert werden
• Alle Proben und Kontrollen sind in gleichartigen, neutralen  Flaschen
• Tatsächliche Anordnungen der sechs Serienfolgen (PPK, PKP, KPP, KKP, KPK, PKK) wird erst vor dem Einschenken ausgelost
• Die Vorbereitung der einzelnen Prüfsätze erfolgt in einem gesonderten Raum, wo die Proben P und Kontrollen K genügend großen Abstand voneinander haben
• Die Realisierung der ausgelosten Prüfsätze kann von den Prüfern nicht verfolgt werden

Abb.16: Die Durchführung der sensorischen Dreiecksprüfung unter standardisierten Bedingungen an der Lehranstalt  für Tourismus im Landesweingut Retz mit sechs zertifizierten Prüfern

Die statistische Auswertung der sensorischen Dreiecksprüfung ergab, dass die Nullhypothese, wonach die Treffer der Prüfer zwischen „Dynamisierung” – aufbereitetem Retzer Trinkwasser (Probe P) und unaufbereitetem Retzer Trinkwasser (Kontrolle K) zufällig sind, verworfen wird:

Zwischen Probe P und Kontrolle K besteht ein hoch signifikanter sensorischer Unterschied von 99%. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit für einen Fehler dieser Verwerfung der Nullhypothese beträgt nur 1%.

Gibt es eine Ähnlichkeit der Informationsspeicherung zwischen Wasser und Computern?

Computer sind elektronische Rechenmaschinen, deren Zahlensystem nicht dekadisch mit den 10 Ziffern (0,1, … 9), sondern dual mit den zwei Ziffern (0,1) ist und deren Logik der Boole’schen Algebra folgt. Der Erfinder des dualen Zahlensystems ist der berühmte Philosoph und Mathematiker Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, der schon seinerzeit vorführte, wie man mit Dualzahlen grundlegende Rechenoperationen (Addition, Subtraktion, Multiplikation etc.) durchführen kann. Der englische Mathematiker George Boole ist der Schöpfer der Boole’schen Algebra, eines von ihm entworfenen Systems der Aussagenlogik, das auf logischen, zweiwertigen mathematische Regeln basiert.

Die Boole’sche Algebra ist eine zweiwertige Logik, d.h. entweder es „ist“ oder es „ist nicht“, eine dritte Möglichkeit gibt es nicht. In der Philosophie nennt man eine derartige Logik „tertium non datur“ bzw. „ein Drittes gibt es nicht“. Die Boole’sche Algebra ist auf den beiden Wahrheitswerten WAHR (w) und FALSCH (f) sowie auf den Funktionen UND (^), ODER (v) und NICHT (┐) aufgebaut. Anstelle von „w – f“ kann man auch „ist – ist nicht, „ja – nein“ oder „1 – 0“ verwenden. Jede Aussage p, q, … (beispielsweise p = Kind hat Halsschmerzen, q = Kind hat Fieber, …) kann nur entweder wahr (w) oder falsch (f) sein, eine dritte Möglichkeit gibt es in der Boole’schen Logik nicht. Grundlegende Verknüpfungen bzw. Funktionen von zwei Aussagen p, q, aus denen sich alle anderen logisch herleiten lassen, sind die folgenden, die man in sogenannten Wahrheitstabellen zusammenfasst:

p      q  | (p ^ q)                                   p     q   | (p v q)                            p     |  (┐p)

w     w |    w                                       w    w  |    w                                 w    |    f

w     f  |    f                                         w    w  |    w                                 f     |    w

f      w |    f                                         f     w  |    w

f      f   |    f                                         f     f    |    f

Haben zwei Verknüpfungen die gleiche Wahrhheitstabelle, so sind sie äquivalent (), d.h. sie sind immer wahr. Alle anderen Verknüpfungen von Aussagen p, q, r, … lassen sich auf die obigen drei Funktionen (^ , v , ┐) zurückführen, beispielsweise die sogenannte „wenn-dann“-Aussage bzw. Implikation (→); man kann stets zeigen, dass (p → q  ┐v q) immer wahr ist.

Die praktische Weiterentwicklung der Boole’schen Aussagenlogik ist die Schaltalgebra, auf der die Funktionsweise aller Computer- und Programmiersprachen beruhen. Alle Handlungen, die ein Digitalcomputer vornimmt, basieren daher im Prinzip auf einer einzigen digitalen Grundoperation: auf der Fähigkeit zu erkennen, ob ein Schalter bzw. ein „Gatter” geöffnet oder geschlossen ist. Ein Computer kann also nur zwei Zustände in seinen mikroskopisch kleinen Schaltungen erkennen: an oder aus, hohe oder niedrige Spannung bzw. die Zahlen 0 oder 1.

Während des 2. Weltkrieges wurden für die elektronischen Schaltungen erstmals Elektronenröhren verwendet (John Atanasoff, Alan Turing), Ende der 1950-iger Jahre kamen dafür Transistoren zum Einsatz und Ende der 1960-iger Jahre Integrierte Schaltungen ICs. Mitte der 1970-iger Jahre waren bereits Very Large Scale Integrated Schaltungen (VLSI) technisch möglich. Bei Mikroprozessoren sind heutzutage viele tausend miteinander verbundene Transistoren – also wesentlich mehr als beim IC – auf ein einzelnes Siliciumsubstrat geätzt. Die Geschwindigkeit, mit der ein Computer heute die einfache Schaltung „an“ oder „aus“ bewältigt, macht ihn zu einem Spitzengerät der modernen Technologie. Computergeschwindigkeiten werden heute in Gigahertz gemessen, also in Milliarden Zustandsänderungen (Takten) pro Sekunde.

Sowohl die Programme bzw. die Software, nach der ein Computer seine Berechnungen durchführt bzw. abarbeitet, als auch Zwischenergebnisse und Ergebnisse überhaupt werden in elektronischer Schaltern abgespeichert. Computer können Daten intern (im Arbeitsspeicher) oder extern (auf Speichermedien) speichern. Interne Anweisungen oder Daten können temporär in RAM-Siliciumchips (RAM: Random Access Memory, wahlfreier Zugriffsspeicher) direkt auf der Hauptplatine des Computers oder auf eigenen Speichersteckkarten abgelegt werden. Diese RAM-Chips bestehen heute schon aus Milliarden Schaltern, die auf Veränderungen des elektrischen Stromes reagieren. Eine andere Art von internem Speicher besteht aus Siliciumchips, deren Schalter schon alle eingestellt sind. Die Muster in diesen ROM-Chips (Read-Only Memory: Nur-Lese-Speicher) bilden die Befehle, Daten und Programme, die der Computer für eine korrekte Funktionsweise benötigt. RAM-Chips sind im Prinzip wie Papierseiten, die beschrieben, wieder radiert und neu verwendet werden können. ROM-Chips dagegen sind wie Bücher, bei denen bereits alle Wörter auf den Seiten gedruckt stehen. Sowohl RAM- als auch ROM-Chips sind über Schaltungen mit der CPU verbunden.

Wassercluster speichern Informationen – beispielsweise mechanische, thermische oder elektrodynamische Einflüsse nach hydrodynamischer Aufbereitung – für einige Zeit auf dynamische Weise, indem die beteiligten Wasserdipole ihre stets auf- und abbauenden Wasserstoff-Brückenbindungen – metaphorisch gesprochen ihren rhythmischen „Tanz“ – je nach Stärke und Art des hydrodynamischen Einflusses mehr oder weniger stark für gewisse Zeiten widerspiegeln.

Aus der Perspektive elektronischer Speicherung von permanenten ROM- oder temporären RAM- Schalteinstellungen im Computer einerseits und dem temporären, hydrodynamisch beeinflussbaren Öffnen und Schließen von Wasserstoffbrücken zwischen den Wasserdipolen dynamischer Wassercluster andererseits kam man daher nur bedingt und wenn überhaupt, dann nur analog von Ähnlichkeiten zwischen Computern und dem Wasser sprechen.

Weltweite Untersuchungen über dynamisiertes Wasser

Man kann davon ausgehen, dass fast alle Technischen Universitäten der Erde sich der Erforschung und Wissenschaft der Hydrodynamik des  Wassers widmen. Diese Forschung ist ein Zweig der Mechanik von Flüssigkeiten, der auch im Bereich der Physik angesiedelt ist. Dabei spielt die chemische Aufbereitung des Wassers eine nebensächliche und nur geringe Rolle.

Was das Studium der nichtlineare Dynamik von Flüssigkeiten anlangt, so wird dies in erster Linie am „Institut für Physikalische Chemie“ an der  Freien Universität Brüssel und am „Center for Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics“ an der Universität Austin in Texas gelehrt. Wir schlagen aber vor, ein „Internationales Institut für Wasserforschung IIW“ zu gründen, das die weltweite Wasserforschung nicht nur dokumentiert, sondern das die Untersuchung von hydrodynamischer Aufbereitung von Wasser mit unterschiedlichen Methoden auch anbietet. Dazu sollte man derartige Methoden (Spektralphotometrie, Oberflächenspannung, Elastische Lichtstreuung, Biophotonen, Nichtlineare Analyse physiologischer Zeitreihen, Sensoriktests, etc.) im Rahmen eines Workshops oder Symposiums darstellen und Experten auf diesem Gebiet dazu einladen. Wir sind bereit, an der Etablierung eines derartigen IIW mitzuwirken.

Wasserverschmutzung aus globaler Sicht

Es gibt zwei Arten von Wasserverschmutzung: eine chemische und eine physikalische. Normalerweise verbindet man damit nur die chemische Verschmutzung von Wasser. Darüber zu reflektieren, würde Bücher füllen. Was die „physikalische Verschmutzung“, insbesondere jene, die auf hydrodynamische Weise erfolgt, so sollte man einen Standard festlegen, unter welchen Bedingungen der Zustand des Wassers ein Optimum darstellt, vor allem hinsichtlich seiner Bedeutung für die Biosphäre generell und insbesondere für uns Menschen speziell. Dabei habe ich vor mir als Vorbild frisches Quellwasser, dessen Eigenschaften man hinsichtlich seiner dynamischen Wassercluster mit den oben beschriebenen Methoden standardisieren könnte. Erst dann ließe sich jene kritische Schwelle angeben, ab der man von physikalischer bzw. hydrodynamisch induzierter Wasserverschmutzung sprechen könnte. Im Bereich der chemischen und biologischen Verschmutzung gibt es ja ohnehin Grenzwerte, die aber weltweit verschieden festgelegt sind.

Durch den bereits eingetretenen Klimawandel (Abschmelzen der Polkappen und der Gletscher in den Bergen; zunehmende lokale Trockengebiete, aber auch zunehmende lokale Überschwemmungen) kann es regional zum Versiegen von Quellen einerseits, aber auch zur Verschmutzung des Trinkwassers nach Überschwemmungen andererseits kommen. Wie mir vor kurzem Hydrogeologen bestätigten, ist jedoch in tieferen Schichten Gesteinswasser in ausreichender Menge zur Verfügung – die Brunnen müssen regional nur tiefer geschlagen werden.

Ist Wasser lebendig?

Wir gehen davon aus, dass mit dem Terminus “lebendiges Wasser” eher eine Metapher als eine tatsächliche Behauptung für jenes Wasser gemeint ist, das auf eine besondere Weise hydrodynamisch aufbereitet bzw. aktiviert wird. Die Metapher bezieht sich vermutlich auf die Analogie hinsichtlich des sogenannten „Gedächtnisses“ von Wasser, aber auch auf manche wunderschönen Kristalle, mit denen Wasser zu Eis kristallisiert.

10. Thesen über die Resonanzwirkung von dynamisiertem Wasser

Die lebensnotwendige Information von Nahrungsmitteln wird normalerweise durch das Zellwasser als Lebensmittel wie in einem Empfänger resonanzartig an den Körper als hochgeordnetes dissipatives System vermittelt. Wenn aber keine Resonanz eintritt, weil das Wasser als Empfänger nicht wie natürliches Quellwasser dissipativ dynamisiert und eigentlich ein totes Mittel ist, dann erzeugt dieses Nahrungsmittel eine Art Dissonanz im Körper und lässt Schlacken zurück. Es ist ein danach ein enormer energetischer Aufwand unseres Körpers erforderlich, um zu entschlacken. Wir verlieren damit wertvolle Energie, anstatt die erforderliche Information aus der Nahrung zu gewinnen.

Es geht daher in Lebewesen nicht um Wasser, sondern um die Fähigkeit von Wasser, Information zu übertragen. Durch seine dynamischen Wassercluster ist das Wasser – wie bereits dargestellt – eigentlich keine Flüssigkeit, sondern ein dynamischer Flüssigkristall. In einem solchen Flüssigkristall, der sich bestenfalls wie die Tänzer in einem Ballett verhält, steckt tatsächlich Energie hoher Ordnung und damit Negentropie bzw. Information. Die elektrischen Wasserdipole verstärken sich dabei als Cluster zu dynamischen Giantdipols, was zur Polarisation des Flüssigkristalls Wasser führt. In der Physik kennt man diese Erscheinung als Piezoelektrizität, die man tatsächlich nachweisen kann, weil es dabei zu einem Stromfluss kommt.

Was also geschieht in natürlichem Quellwasser bzw. in einem dynamisierten Flüssigkeitskristall wirklich, wenn es die gespeicherte Negentropie bzw. die Information der Umgebung oder Nahrung vermittelt. Die bereitgestellte Information wird nicht an eine statische, sondern an eine dynamische Geometrie schwingender Dipole des Flüssigkristalls angekoppelt. Die hohe Energie des Sonnenlichtes oder der Nahrung materialisiert sich als Schwingung bzw. dynamischer Tanz der Wasserdipole in dem dynamischen Flüssigkristall Wasser.

Schwingungen lassen sich durch deren Frequenzen bzw. Wellenlängen ausdrücken, denen in der Quantentheorie Energie E = h.n zugeordnet werden. Da der lebende Organismus vor allem der elektromagnetischen Wechselwirkung unterliegt, äußern sich diese Schwingungen des Flüssigkristalls Wasser im wesentlichen als elektromagnetische Wellen bzw. Photonen der Energien E = h.n, z.B. als Licht – die Elektrizität selbst können wir ja nicht beobachten, sondern nur deren Wirkung. Und diese schwingende elektrischen Wasserdipole sowie die elektromagnetischen Wellen, die man im Fall von Zellwasser auch als Biophotonen bezeichnet, fließen durch unseren Körper.

Hier beginnt moderne Naturwissenschaft. Wasser hat in seinem optimalen Zustand als Quellwasser bzw. dynamisiertes Wasser nicht nur eine flüssig-kristalline Struktur, sondern vor allem Zustände von geordnet und clusterartig schwingenden, molekularen Dipolen. In solch einem tanzenden Flüssigkristall steckt tatsächlich hohe Ordnung als Information bzw. Negentropie, die als dynamisch-geometrischen Ordnung aufgefasst werden kann.

Als Symbol für die Wiederholbarkeit steht der Kreis. Als wissenschaftlich gilt, was wiederholbar, was messbar ist. Aber es gibt weder einen idealen Kreis noch eine ideale Wiederholbarkeit in der Natur! Auch gibt es niemals zwei gleiche Wassermoleküle. Und doch stellen wir jedes Wassermolekül durch das gleiche Symbol H₂O dar! Ähnliches gilt für die Jahreszeiten. Jedes Jahr haben wir wieder Sommer – und doch wir wissen, dass uns jedes neue Jahr einen anderen Sommer bringt. In der Natur kennen wir nur die Spirale, sie ist ein Symbol der Evolution!

Die Spiralform findet sich auch im Wasser, wenn es sich um frisches Quellwasser handelt und sich gleichsam wie „lebendiges“ Wasser bewegt. Im Wasser findet man auch elektromagnetische Wellen in Form von Licht, das nicht nur eine von der Temperatur des Wassers abhängige Plancksche Wärmestrahlung darstellt, sondern außerdem auch ein zwar schwaches, aber doch nicht-thermisches Leuchten enthält. Aus der Sicht der Quantentheorie besteht dieses nicht-thermische Leuchten aus Lichtquanten bzw. Photonen, die man für Zellwasser auch als Biophotonen bezeichnen kann.

Je höher nun die flüssig-kristalline und spiralig-dynamische Phase im Wasser ist, umso höher ist auch der Informationsgehalt des Wassers in Form von Schwingungen der geordneten Wasserdipole bzw. Cluster und des damit verbundenen Leuchtens. Es sind also tatsächlich elektromagnetische Schwingungen bzw. nicht-thermische Photonen im Wasser mit empfindlichen Geräten (Photoelektronen-Vervielfacher) messbar.

Wenn sich Wasser in seiner spiraligen Mäanderform bewegt, dann verwirbeln sich dabei die Wasserdipole, was nach Viktor Schauberger zu einer Implosion und zu einer entsprechenden Photonenemission führt. Bevor Quellwasser dynamisiert ist, bevor es also levitant durch artesische Quellen an die Oberfläche kommt, nimmt es im Inneren der Erde geomagnetische Frequenzmuster als Informationen auf. Wasser hat damit – wie schon oben dargestellt – gleichsam ein Gedächtnis. Dieses Quasi-Gedächtnis ist an eine dynamische Geometrie gebunden, die in der Lage ist, seine Information für einige Zeit zu bewahren. Schwingungen zu Clustern geordneter Wasserdipole finden sich nach dem Trinken von frischem Quellwasser als Informationen auch in unserem Körper, der ja überwiegend aus Wasser besteht und ein nicht-thermisches, offenes und dissipatives System darstellt.

Es geht also um die dynamische Ordnung der Wasserdipole zu flüssig-kristallinen Clustern und daher um die dynamische Geometrie des Wassers: letztlich um Information, die im Wasser bewahrt und danach dem Organismus zur Verfügung gestellt wird. Man sollte frisches Quellwasser oder dynamisiertes Wasser aber nicht nur trinken, um gesünder zu sein, sondern auch, weil es kraft der dynamischen Geometrie seiner schwingenden Dipol-Cluster in der Lage ist, unser Bewusstsein zu erweitern.

In der ursprünglichen, intakten Natur findet das Wasser Bedingungen vor, unter denen es seine lebenspendenden Eigenschaften voll zur Entfaltung bringen kann. Diese natürlichen Bedingungen sind: dynamischer Fluss, Wirbel bildend, Reinheit von Schadstoff-Informationen, natürliche Regeneration im Falle einer sauberen Atmosphäre. Diese Bedingungen werden von bestimmten Merkmalen begleitet, die Voraussetzung dafür sind, dass Wasser seine natürlichen Eigenschaften wie hochgeordnete dynamische Cluster, Dipolschwingungen und nicht-thermische Photonenemission ausbilden kann, die für das Leben von Mensch, Tier und Pflanze von größter Bedeutung sind. Das ist der wahre Grund für die belebende und reinigende Wirkung des frischen Quellwassers, aber auch des in ähnlicher Weise aufbereiteten, dynamisierten Wassers.

Diese Wassereigenschaften sind eng miteinander verbunden und in ihrem Zusammenspiel an der gesunden Entwicklung und Erhaltung von Leben in  all seinen Arten und Formen beteiligt. Warum weist Trink- und Gießwasser in vielen Ländern der Erde diese Eigenschaften nur mehr in geringem Maß auf?  Zurückzuführen ist das aus biophysikalischer Sicht auf unnatürliche Behandlung des Wassers, vor allem aber auf die Umweltverschmutzung in allen drei Sphären: in der Hydro-, der Atmo- und der Lithosphäre. Das kann dazu führen, dass Wasser die dynamisch-geometrische Struktur seiner Cluster und deren Ordnungszustand verliert – der Flüssigkristall Wasser und seine dynamisch-geometrische Struktur fallen dann zusammen, das Wasser verhält sich bloß thermisch. Es fällt in einen dissonanten, chaotischen Zustand, was schädlich auf den Organismus wirkt.

Wenn Wasser über mehrere hundert Meter durch Rohrleitungen fließt und dabei dem jeweiligen Rohrleitungsdruck unterliegt, wird aus biophysikalischer Sicht die dynamische Geometrie der nicht-thermisch schwingenden Wassercluster durch den Druck in den Leitungen stark vermindert: es bricht die dynamisch-kristalline, dissipative Phase des Wassers auseinander. Ein normales Leitungswasser hat also allein aus diesem Grund schon nicht mehr optimale biophysikalische Eigenschaften – ganz abgesehen von den chemischen Veränderungen. Es ist daher empfehlenswert, dynamisiertes Wasser zu trinken: es vermittelt uns ein gesünderes Leben. Wenn wir aber bloß thermisches, gleichsam totes Wasser zu uns nehmen, dann schwächt es vielfach unsere Gesundheit.

Wasser ist ein gutes Lösungsmittel, wenn es dynamisiert ist; damit ist es in der Lage, unseren Körper zu entschlacken und uns andererseits durch seine Dynamisierung die lebensnotwendige Information zu vermitteln. Gerade frisches Quellwasser, wie es in der Natur vorkommt, aber auch dynamisiertes Wasser haben diese lebensfördernden Eigenschaften.

11.  LuxEL-Geräte und  These ihrer Wirksamkeit

Normales Leitungswasser tritt über die Einlassöffnung in das LuxEL-Geräten, wird über die Schauberger-Spirale geleitet, fließt spiralig zwischen zwei zylindrischen Gefäße, die mit entsprechenden Frequenzmustern aufbereitet wurden, und tritt spiralig-hydrodynamisch aufbereitet aus der Auslassöffnung wieder aus.

Ein Wassermolekül besteht aus einer chemischen Verbindung von zwei Wasserstoffatomen und einem Sauerstoffatom. Das Wassermolekül hat Dipolcharakter, weil der Atomkern des Sauerstoffes die beiden Wasserstoff-Elektronen wegen seiner hohen Elektronegativität stärker an sich bindet, und es damit zu einer Ladungstrennung innerhalb des Wassermoleküls kommt: der Sauerstoff hat dann den elektrisch negativen, die beiden Wasserstoffatome den elektrisch positiven Anteil des elektrisch Dipols. Die elektrischen Dipole vernetzen sich zu dynamischen fluktuierenden Clustern, welche diese flüssig-kristalline, jedoch dynamische Struktur des Wassers bilden.  Die „Dynamisierung von Wasser” in einer sogenannten „Dynamisierungsmaschine“ ist daher ein physikalischer Vorgang, der einem nachvollziehbaren Prozess in der «Dynamisierungsmaschine» unterliegt. Durch die spiralförmige, biogeometrische und stabilisierende Führung des Wassers nach Viktor Schaubergers Wirbelthesen wird eine laminare Strömung in Wirbelströmungen umgewandelt und wird hydrodynamisch aufbereitet.

Im LuxEL-Geräten erfolgt eine Veränderung der Wasserstruktur durch die „Dynamisierung” der fluktuierenden Clusterstrukturen auf folgende Weise:

„Normales Leitungswasser wird zuerst über die Schauberger-Spirale verwirbelt. Die dem Quellwasser analogen, den beiden zylindrischen Gefäßen magnetisch eingeprägten Frequenzmuster üben Einflusses auf die dynamisch-geometrische Clusterstruktur aus: sie werden informiert. Die „Informationträger“ der Frequenzmustern sind in den beiden zylindrischen Gefäße des LuxEL-Gerätes gespeichert (siehe in der modellhaften Abbildung) platziert. Diese beiden Gefäße wurden mittels einer nur dem Hersteller bekannten hydrologischen Technologie kontaktlos „informiert“ bzw. „reinformiert“. Damit diese „Information” auch erhalten bleibt, ist das LuxEL-Gerät mit einem Gehäusemantel umgeben, welcher gleichzeitig einen Resonanzraum erzeugt. Dieser Gehäusemantel ist mit einer Frequenz von ca. 7.83 Hz (Schumann-Resonanzen) magnetisiert und soll damit schwache Störfelder der Umgebung abschirmen.

Herr Prof.Dr.Herbert J.Klima.  Alexander Steinke.

Kalkschutz + Rostschutz + Wasserdynamisierung.

Durch Magnetisierung des Gehäusemantels mit der Frequenz des natürlichen Erdmagnetfeldes ca. 7.83 Hz (Schumann-Resonanzen)  werden die Kalziumchlorid – Kristalle verändert. Umwandlung von Calcit in Aragonit. Es ist eine Tatsache, dass ein und dieselbe Substanz (egal ob chemisches Element, oder eine Verbindung) in verschiedenen kristallinen Phasen vorkommen kann und wird als Polymorphie (Vielgestaltigkeit) bezeichnet.

CaCO3  Calcit / Aragonit  Calcit : trigonal Aragonit rthorhombisch Beim Übergang von Calcit zu Aragonit erfolgt eine rekonstruktive Phasenumwandlung, wobei die gesamte Calcitstruktur durch Neukristallisation wird geendert  und kleine Aragonitkristalle entstehen. Diese Kristalle können sich in Wasserrohr- und Boilersystemen nicht mehr stark ablagern, wobei sogar bestehende Kalk- und Rostablagerungen abgebaut werden können. Durch die verbesserten Qualitäten des Wassers ergeben sich natürlich viele Vorteile im täglichen Umgang mit die,, Dynamisierungs ” Wasser. LuxEL  Geräte kombiniert auf natürliche Weise Kalk – und Rostschutz mit „Wasservitalisierung bzw Dynamisierung”. Verkalkung wird vermindert. Die Rostbildung wird reduziert und der Kalk bildet deutlich kleinere Kristalle. Schäden durch Rost können zwar nicht mehr rückgängig gemacht werden, aber weitere Korrosionen können Sie mit LuxEL reduzieren. LuxEL  «belebtes Wasser» bewirkt eine Veränderung des Kalkverhaltens. Kalkablagerungen in Rohrleitungen können sukzessive wieder abgebaut werden. Wasserhähne, Perlatoren, Duschköpfe und Armaturen verkalken kaum mehr, Kalkrückstände auf Fliesen, Duschwänden usw. sind leichter entfernbar. Haushaltgeräte können so besser geschont werden und das Wasser fühlt sich spürbar weicher auf der Haut an. In unzähligen Privathaushalten oder in Die Industrie  wurden die positiven Auswirkungen der EL-Technologie Produkte beobachtet und teilweise dokumentiert. Dabei ist wichtig zu erwähnen, dass klarerweise die unterschiedlichsten Wasserqualitäten ( ph- Werte, Härtegrade, etc.) zur Verfügung stehen und trotzdem immer eine signifikante Erhöhung der Wasserqualität festgestellt werden konnte. Langjährige Erfahrungen haben gezeigt, dass auf die Zugabe von Phosphat und Salzen fast vollständig verzichtet werden konnte. Es entstehen keine Folgekosten für Strom oder chemische Zusätze. Im Privatbereich ergeben sich alle oben genannten Vorteile

IUMAB webinars by Dr. Korotkov

4 November 2010

Contemporary Physics of Water (part II)

Wiggins, Philippa M.¹

¹*Retired from the Department of Medicine,University of Auckland, New Zealand, and from Genesis Research and Development Company, Auckland, New Zealand.

Correpondence: p.wiggins@paradise.net.nzThis e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it
Key Words: allostery, protein folding, water

Received 12 February 2009; revised 17 March 2009; accepted 9 April 2009. Published 1 July 2009. Available online 1 July 2009.

Summary

The broad OH-stretch band of the infra red spectrum of liquid water is shown to comprise two overlapping bands peaking at 3250 cm^-1 (the value in ice, and, presumably, strongly bonded water) and 3635 cm^-1(presumably weakly bonded water). The spectra also reveal the coexistence of zones of LDW and HDW in small-pored polymeric matrices. Possible mechanisms of reactions catalysed by these zones of water associated with enzymes are described. There is a crucial functional connection between the force that drives folding of an enzyme andreactions that it catalyses. When water can move to abolish osmotic pressure gradients created by selective uptake of solutes into HDW or LDW, it does so with some decrease in the partition coefficients of the reactants. When water is prevented from moving, partition coefficientsare unchanged, increased or transiently inverted. Examples of allostery and Michaelis-Menten kinetics (Matthews and van Holde, 1990) are given.
Introduction

Amino acids are capable of only weak interactions such as dipole-dipole attractions, H-bonds and some attraction between positive and negative sites. It is hard to see, even with induced fit, what generates the extreme specificity of the assumed binding sites. When they were first proposed, there was no plausible alternative mechanism. This vacuum was not helped in the early 1970s by the polywater debacle, which erased water from the biochemical lexicon (Franks, 1981). Now, however, two kinds of surface water with different solvent properties do supply plausible alternatives of great specificity. They have been shown to exist in solutions and at surfaces in non-biological systems such as porous beads and desalination membranes. Other attributes of these different surface waters are discussed here to see to what extent they are consistent with the extensive experimental data on enzyme reactions.

Generation and Properties of the Zones of High Density Water (HDW) and Low Density Water (LDW)
Figure 1: a small solute (red) has dissolved in (a) ‘classical water’,(b) HDW, and (c)  LDW. In each case,water immediately adjacent to the solute has a lower concentration (activity) than the same volume away from the solute. This activity gradient results in a pressure gradient, which is positive immediately adjacent to the solute and negative further away. a, nothing happens because ‘classical’ water is assumed to be impervious to the low pressures encountered in osmotic systems; b, water immediately adjacent to the solute is already HDW and is not further affected; c, water immediately adjacent to the surface is converted to HDW, while water in the zone of negative pressure is already LDW and is not further affected.

Figure 1 shows that at a surface, such as that of a protein, there is a gradient of water activity (Wiggins, 2008a), low near the surface and higher further out. Water in the zone of higher activity tends to move in to increase its activity in the zone of low activity. Since it cannot do this, the water activity gradient becomes a pressure gradient, with positive pressure on water at the surface and negative pressure further out. Hitherto, this gradient has been interpreted as just two zones of water: high density water (HDW) immediately close to the surface and low density water (LDW) further out. When it comes to enzyme function, this sharp division lacks subtlety. The gradient of pressure is continuous: the composition of the water changes from highly enriched in HDW at the surface to highly enriched in LDW where the pressure is most negative. The zones of HDW and LDW at the surface, therefore, are not pure and can be manipulated. This modification is necessary in order to explain many experimental results with enzymes and with non-living systems such as small-pored polyamide beads, and solutions of dextran sulphate. These results will be shown as they become relevant.

A Representative Reaction in HDW

• folding of the parent protein loosens, as HDW increases, allowing the cleft to open to the influx of water.
• LDW/HDW moves into the zone of HDW surrounding the solutes
• where it is in the zone of positive pressure, it is converted to HDW
• the extra water cannot all fit in the zone of positive pressure: it encroaches on the zone of negative pressure (compare Figures 2a and b)
• the average enrichment of  HDW in the zone nearest the surface is lower than it was initially.
• concentrations of all solutes in HDW decrease because their partition coefficients are lowered.

Figure 5: The viscosity of dextran sulphate solutions (3 g water to 1 g sodium dextran sulphate) to which various solutes were added.

Figure 5 shows some representative results which were reproduced many times. It was assumed that increase in viscosity was due to increase of LDW and/or decrease of HDW. Urea which partitions into LDW is of particular interest, as it appears to be one of the more eccentric molecules in Figure 5 and it links the discussion of enzymes to the properties of charged surfaces. Low concentrations of urea increased LDW by partitioning into it and drawing other water into the same zone of negative pressure either from the external solution of LDW/HDW or from the neighbouring zone of HDW. It then quite suddenly stopped increasing LDW at about 0.1 M and viscosity steadily decreased with higher concentrations. From these results alone, it is not possible to determine the source of the water that abolishes the osmotic pressure gradient caused by selective uptake of urea. By combining this result with that of other experiments, however, the decision could be made. It became clear that below 0.1 M, urea drew water from the counterion zone and that above 0.1 M it had exhausted that source of water and thereafter the main effect was a decrease in viscosity as urea increased HDW in the rest of the solution. The extreme sharpness of this transition is comparable with that shown by 10 mM KCl in cellulose acetate membranes and, indeed by KCl in Figure 5, suggesting that urea and KCl both exhaust available HDW at about 0.1 M, convert water to HDW, and lose all solutes.

The other experiments which made this conclusion possible consisted of measuring the rate of loss of silicates from the surfaces of small glass beads or of charged groups from cation or anion exchange resins. Urea below 0.1 M greatly accelerated these losses. Cleavage of silicates from the surface only takes place in highly enriched HDW in which concentrations of H⁺ and OH^-are both high. This shows that in the presence of urea or KCl, water was leaving the HDW zone for the LDW zone so that the concentration of the counterion increased and the enrichment of HDW increased. This is just one example of the general principle that measurement of a single property of a system does not give enough information for a uniquesolution. Another example from the same pair of experiments is that NaCl, which decreased the viscosity of dextran sulphate solutions, protected silicates from cleavage by HDW. NaCl partitions into HDW, increasing the dielectric constant of the solution round the fixed charge, and allowing water to move in so that there is an increase in the amount of enriched HDW but not in its degree of enrichment. These apparently simple systems are in fact complex.

Dangers of Charged Sites

Enzymes must beware of charged sites because there are many ways in which HDW becomes reactive enough to cleave the bond linking the charged group to the backbone. Loss of an essential amino acid residue or cleavage of a peptide bond would destroy the enzyme.  Mg²⁺ as counterion can often induce this level of reactivity. Electrophoresis of DNA with Tris as counterion gave a series of bands showing that many different sized oligonucleotides were present. When Mg²⁺ was counterion, the bands all disappeared. Presumably the oligonucleotides that had been identified with Tris had been hydrolysed by highly reactive HDW. Since Mg²⁺ is divalent, it was held very closely to the charged group, which was therefore contained in a small volume of highly enriched HDW. The osmotic pressure gradient increased further because, in order to maintain electroneutrality, the divalent counterion was  accompanied by an anion. The extreme effects of Mg²⁺ as counterion are obscured by the presence of excess MgCl₂,which behaves like NaCl in Figure 5. Again two sets of experiments are needed to understand its action. It has been shown that the cation transport ATPases apparently make subtle use of the power of Mg²⁺, at the same time evading the danger.

MgATP can enter most zones of water because it comprises a chelate of Mg²⁺, which partitions strongly into HDW, and ATP, which partitions strongly into LDW. Its own partition coefficient is therefore quite low. In the Na,K-ATPase, for example, it phosphorylates an aspartyl residue in the cleft of the active site, leaving Mg²⁺ as the counterion. Since there is only a single Mg²⁺, its effect is not opposed by excess MgCl₂, and it readily out-competes other cations at higher concentrations because it has the greatest affinity for HDW and is divalent. The result is an extremely enriched pocket of LDW to accomplish the transport step and an extremely enriched pocket of HDW to hydrolyse the phosphoenzyme. (Wiggins, 2007). Na⁺ is pushed up to the apex of the cleft by an advancing wave of LDW and out through an open channel, while K⁺, with its high affinity for LDW, moves in. K⁺, more powerfully than urea, accumulates into LDW, extracting water from the region of positive pressure and completing the enrichment of HDW, which then hydrolyses the phosphoenzyme. In this way the enzyme uses the unique properties of water at a charged site with Mg²⁺ as counterion, but retains its integrity. Many enzymes are phosphorylated, used, and dephosphorylated in this way.

Oxygenation of Haemoglobin

Oxygenation of haemoglobin (Matthews and van Holde, 1990) may be a process that can be simply explained in terms of LDW and HDW. Four chains fold to achieve the active state. The reaction takes place in the haeme which has a Fe atom held by bonds donated by nitrogens in the haeme. This Fe is doubly positively charged with two counterions that generate their own localised pockets of highly enriched HDW and highly enriched LDW. It is a powerful system because with two counterions it generates double the usual osmotic pressure gradient.

This results in differences from reactions so far discussed:

·        the volume of the compartment under pressure is determined by the diffusive path marked out by the counterions, which are assumed to be Cl^- -the most common anion in the extracellular solution.

·        the volume increases only if the local dielectric constant increases with uptake of electrolytes (eg NaCl) which partition into HDW: as the concentration of NaCl increases, the volume of the compartment increases and allows influx of water to abolish the osmotic pressure gradient.

·        The volume decreases with uptake of a solute which decreases the dielectric constant (e.g., a hydrophobic solute).

·        The volume also decreases if  a solute partitions selectively into LDW, drawing water from the counterion compartment, a movement which is permitted because it reinforces (rather than opposes) the electrostatic force

·        All movements of water are internal exchanges so that they depend, not upon the folding of the protein, but on the control of the electrostatic field, which  generates much stronger forces than those of osmotic systems.

Haemoglobin

There are several observations that have to be addressed: oxygen must be taken up strongly to be transported round the body, but it must also be released in tissues where it is needed.

1. Cooperative Binding of Oxygen

Oxygen binds weakly at low concentrations but the binding strength increases with its concentration. In terms of LDW/HDW, oxygen partitions into enriched HDW in the pocket occupied by counterions. Water does not follow to abolish the osmotic pressure gradient. As the concentration of oxygen increases, the standing osmotic pressure gradient increases, the pressure gradient increases and water is increasngly enriched in HDW. This accounts for ‘weak binding’ at low concentrations and ‘strong binding’ at high concentrations.

2. Conformational Change When Oxygen Binds

Although folding of the enzyme does not control movement of water at the charged site, production of either HDW or LDW during the reaction must generate a change in folding. Accumulation of oxygen in HDW increases enrichment of HDW in that pocket. This appears to result in a tightening of the folded structure because X-ray crystallography shows that a central hole decreases when oxygen is taken up. Presumably, the extended haemoglobin chains induced more HDW on solution in LDW/HDW (Wiggins, 2009).

CO₂ and Biphosphoglycerate

These two compounds modify oxygen uptake. CO₂ at physiological pH is principally HCO₃^-. Like most anions (including biphosphoglycerate) HCO₃^- partitions into LDW, taking a cation with it. As it does so it draws water from the zone under positive pressure, decreasing the volume of HDW accessible for uptake of O₂ and slightly increasing the standing osmotic pressure gradient and the degree of enrichment in HDW. The net result appears to be that uptake of oxygen is slightly decreased. This proposal can be tested experimentally in, perhaps, a dextran sulphate solution.

The Bohr Effect

At extremely low concentrations of venous O₂ there is a drop in pH. Of univalent cations, H⁺ ions have by far the greatest affinity for HDW. Even from low concentrations they are taken up, together with an anion, probably Cl^-, increasing the dielectric constant in the zone under pressure, allowing entry of water from the associated zone of LDW. This dilutes not only oxygen, but also the two counterions which determine the osmotic pressure gradient, so that both concentration of oxygen and enrichment of HDW are depressed, with further loss of oxygen.

This scheme also allows ‘binding’ of O₂ and HCO₃^- at the same site.

Role of Aminoacid Sequences

The infra red spectra have confirmed that poresin membranes or clefts in proteins contain both LDW and HDW. If, asseems probable, HDW zones are immediately close to the surface, theamino acid sequences in the active site become another factor toconsider. The surface of a protein is, in fact, an array of side chainswith some kinetic energy. The HDW zone will allow hydrophobic sidechains to extend freely from the polypeptide chain, but side-chainswhich have an affinity for LDW tend to lie flat along the surface. Thusthe local composition of the polypeptide chain controls to a degree thevolume available to the reaction.

Conclusion

The long neglected variable, pressure (Franzese et al, 2008), makes this scheme versatile and, perhaps, credible.

References

Franks F (1981). Polywater. Cambridge Mass MIT Press.

Franzese G, Stokely K, Chu X-Q, Kimar P, Mazza MG, Chen S-H and Stanley HE (2008). Pressure Effects in Supercooled Water, J. Phys. A Condensed Matter 20: 494210.

Matthews CK, van Holde KE (1990). Biochemistry. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, New York, 373.

Wiggins PM and van Ryn RT (1986). The solvent properties of water in desalination membranes. J Macromol Sci-Chem A23: 875-903.

Wiggins PM (1988). Water structure in polymer membranes. Progress in Polymer Science 13: 1-35.

Wiggins PM (2002). Enzymes and two-state water. J. Biol. Phys Chem. 2: 25-37.

Wiggins PM (2007). Life depends upon two types of water. PloS ONE 3 (1): e1406. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00014068Q Wiggins PM, (2008a). Prions, plaques and polyelectrolytes. J Biol Phys Chem. 8: 49-54

Wiggins PM (2008b). DNA as a Darwinian self-replicator J Biol Phys Chem. 8: 89-93

Wiggins PM (2009). The Source of Some of the Extraordinary Powers and Properties of Enzymes, WATER 1: 35-41.

Discussion with Reviewers

Frank Mayer¹: What about possible influences of water moieties further away from the enzymes? After all, data from a number of workers (e.g., Ling, Pollack) allow to state that a distribution of LDW and HDW moieties may exist that may be different from that depicted in the figures of the article (“exclusion zones” may be of importance).

Philippa Wiggins: I intended this article to be about enzyme reactions which must take place within a very few nm of the surface. Exclusion zones and more distant interactions of water molecules (a la Ling) are not excluded but are certainly not included in this limited treatment. They are just irrelevant.  The particular mechanism that I have proposed for induction of HDW and LDW at surfaces is extremely unlikely to extend far into the solution. Experiments with polyamide beads have suggested that a diameter of 3 nm is about maximum. That means 1.5 nm at a planar surface.

Mayer: Many data are available which indicate that membrane-associated enzymes are not directly attached to the surface of the membrane, but connected to the membrane by “stalks” 3 to 7 nm long, or that typical “soluble” enzymes are, in fact, also connected to membrane surfaces by stalks of this size. Could that mean that a size range between 3 and 7 nm is the optimum for the positioning of the active site of an enzyme relative to a surface (the membrane surface) that is known to influence water structure?

Wiggins: I suggest that these stalks are devices to protect the membrane not to pander to enzymes. If an enzyme that partitioned into HDW diffused all the way to the membrane it would meet a barrage of charged headgroups and counterions: phosphates with Ca²⁺ and amino groups with Cl^-. It would then diffuse into a pocket of HDW and unfold. It originally folded only because it had to decrease the excess LDW that it induced in its extended state. In the pocket of HDW, however, it is under positive pressure and cannot induce LDW. Therefore there is no driving force for it to fold. In its elongated state it greatly reduces the dielectric constant at the fixed charge so that the counterion moves in closer to the fixed charge. This increases the osmotic pressure gradient, the pressure gradient and the degree of enrichment with HDW. It cleaves the phosphate or the amino group off the membrane, destroying its barrier properties. I have suggested (Wiggins, 2008a) that prions wreak their havoc by this means. Your distance of 3 to 7 nm is to be expected for a charged site. The 2-3 nm is the thickness at an uncharged surface. The only paper I have read that measured the thickness of the double layer gave a value of 6 nm. It depends upon the counterion. This measurement was made with Zn²⁺.

Mayer: Could it be envisaged that the structural state of the water at a distance of about 3 to 7 nm from the enzyme cleft sets the basic conditions, and that reactions/alterations of water structure taking place within the cleft are “embedded” into (or even regulated by) the basic conditions?

Wiggins: You would have to come up with a good mechanism. There may well be one. I am particularly inclined toward a 2-3 nm limit because the original division of water into microdomains involves a decrease in entropy which can only increase as the size of the domains increases. According to Gene Stanley, the microdomains separate into two solutions at about -50^oC. This would involve a very large decrease in entropy.

Ivan Cameron²: My question concerns the hemodynamics on oxygenation of
haemoglobin. It seems likely that erythrocyte shape change and shear
force (stenosis) occurs when erythrocytes pass through the capillary
bed. This perturbation probably disrupts their LDW state and thereby
modifies oxygen as well as CO₂ exchange. What is your comment on this
possibility?

Wiggins: This pressure acts on the whole red cell. It may well modify the C0₂/O₂ exchange, but it would be rapidly reversible. But that is a very good point.

Cameron: How can your water model of enzyme action be tested?

Wiggins: There is a wealth of experimental data on enzyme reactions, all interpreted in terms of binding sites. If these can also be interpreted in terms of surface water, then that is a good test of the mechanism. I have done that here with Michaelis-Menten kinetics and with allostery. There are many more things one could do, but my personal ignorance of biochemistry gets in the way. As I said earlier, there are plenty experiments showing the properties of water at other surfaces, and no reason why protein surfaces should be different.

¹ Head, Structural Biology Department, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany.

² University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Cellular and Structural Biology.

http://www.waterjournal.org/archives/volume-1/50-wiggins2-full-text

Chaplin, MF¹

Water conf

A DVD set of the proceedings of the Third Annual Water Conference is available at a cost of $375.00 plus shipping. An order form is available at the above-mentioned website. A limited number of DVD sets of the Second Annual Water Conference’s proceedings are also available.
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Cameron, I^1,*

Key Words: Egg white, albumen, solute exclusion, vital dye, methylene blue, gel-sol

Received 10 May 2010; revised 22 July; accepted 24 July. Published 19 August 2010; available online 19 August 2010

Summary

As reported here hen egg white can be sepa­rated by sieve filtration into thin and thick albumen fractions that remain as separate non-miscible fractions. Thick albumen but not thin albumen behaves as a gel and was found to have vital dye excluding properties. Thick albumen also demonstrates swelling and shrinking under osmotic conditions and the ability to transform from a dye ex­cluding gel to a non-dye excluding more fluid sol under the influence of pressure or agitation. Thick albumen gel that had been agitated to a sol state was observed to trans­form from the non-dye-excluding sol state back to a dye excluding gel state when al­lowed to rest without agitation. These find­ings may help explain vital dye exclusion by most but not all cells.

Introduction

The research focus of this laboratory has been on the physical properties of water in cells and on proteins. These physical prop­erties of water include: motion, osmotic activity, flow, sorption and the size of the bulk and the different non-bulk water frac­tions (Cameron and Fullerton 2006, 2008, Fullerton et al. 2006, 2007 and Cameron et al.1988, 1997, 2007, 2008). One of the physical properties of water in cells and on proteins left to explore was solute (dye) ex­clusion. While preparing concentrated solu­tions of proteins like bovine serum albumen, egg white albumen and egg white lysozyme for physical measures, an alternate natural source of concentrated globular protein so­lution came to mind. The natural source is hen egg white albumen. Note that the name of the specific protein type is spelled albu­min, while albumen is a generalized word referring to egg white. Egg white is read­ily available and an inexpensive source of a concentrated globular protein solution and was therefore chosen for study. This report deals with dye exclusion from the thick vs. the thin albumen fraction of hen egg white, but the report also deals with other physical properties of thin and thick albumen.

It is commonly held that exposure of living cells to a vital dye, like methylene blue, does not dye the living cell interior but dead cells do dye blue. There are however, reports that viable normal cells (Harris and Peters 1953), Brooks and Brooks 1941), cells ad­jacent to wounds (Marconi and Quintian 1998), Upile et al. 2007) and pre-malignant epithelial cells adjacent to the normal epi­thelial cells all do take in methylene blue as evidenced by the fact that at least their nu­cleus turns blue (Gordon et al. 2007, Chen et al. 2007). Two possible cellular dye ex­cluding mechanisms are: the semi-permea­bility of the cell’s plasma membrane and the dye excluding properties of cell’s cytoplasm.

A question arises from the observations re­ported above. Does the dye excluding prop­erties of cytoplasm/protoplasm, even with­out an intact cell membrane, have the ability to exclude vital dye solutes like methylene blue or other vital dyes? In at least one case, the answer is yes. This case is illustrated in Fig. 1 from Cameron et al. (1988). None of the decapsulated and membrane disruptive detergent exposed treatments resulted in dye uptake by the lens cells. It was conclud­ed that the lens cell cytoplasm, rather than an intact cell membrane was responsible for the dye exclusion in the lens cells.

Figure 1: Photographs illustrating the result of dye exclusion tests on the lens body, lens capsule, and sclera of pig eyes with and without treatment in nonionic detergents. The round-shaped speci­mens are decapsulated lens. Above and to the right of each lens is the removed capsule of that lens, and above and to the left is a piece of the sclera. The let­ters “H” and “S” refer to the bathing solutions used (“H” = Hanks and “S” = isotonic sucrose). The let­ters “B” and “T” refer to cell membrane disruptive detergents (“B” = brig 58 and “T” = triton x 100). The letter “C” refers to the unstrained control. Spec­imens in A (top paragraph), except the unstained controls were exposed to 0.1% nigrosin. Specimens in B (middle photograph was exposed to 0.1% try­pan blue, and in C (bottom photograph, were ex­posed to 0.1% methylene blue. After one hour in the dye solutions, the intact lenses were removed and their stained capsule removed. The lens body (less the capsules) was returned to the dye solution for 2 additional hours, then removed and placed on a glass plate along with its lens capsule and a piece of sclera. As shown here, none of the treatments resulted in dye uptake or staining of the lens body, whereas all of the lens capsule and sclera speci­mens took up the dye. Figure reproduced from Cameron et al. 1988 with permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Experimental Observations: Meth­ods and Results

Observations on the distribution and on the dye exclusion properties of thin and of thick egg white albumen fractions

When an egg is cracked open and dropped on to the surface of a dark hot frying pan the egg white farthest from the yolk turns white before the thicker more viscous egg white, around the yolk, turns white. This observa­tion reveals egg white to be composed of at least two major fractions.

An egg was cracked open and the egg white was separated from the yolk and poured gently into a beaker. The egg white did not appear to be homogeneous. Some of the more viscous egg white tended to move to­wards the bottom. However the more vis­cous egg white did not form a separate layer at the bottom of the beaker, thus simple sed­imentation in a beaker by one times gravity could not be used as a means of separating egg white into two or more fractions. These observations raised questions: First, where are the different fractions of egg white lo­cated in an intact egg, and second, can the different fractions of egg white albumen be separated so that the properties of the frac­tions can be separately measured and ana­lyzed? These questions are addressed next.

Published hen egg structure gives informa­tion on the spatial distribution of the more viscous thick albumen and of the less vis­cous thin albumen. Fig. 2 illustrates a cross section through the long axis of a hen egg and reveals the clear albumen (egg white) to consist of layers (Fig. 2 Kiple and Ornelas). Fig. 2. Just under the shell’s mammilary layer is found an outer less viscous or thin albumen layer. Next inward is a thick vis­cous albumen layer, then an inner thin al­bumen layer and finally, another very small chalaziferous layer located immediately over the yolk surface. An air cell is located at the blunt end of the egg.

Based on the layered distribution of thin and of thick albumen an experiment was done to determine the possible solute (methylene blue dye) excluding properties of the outer thin and the thick layer of albumen. A half cm hole was made in the egg shell halfway between the blunt and the sharp pole of the egg shell. Through the hole 0.1 ml of 0.5% methylene blue solution made up in phos­phate buffered saline was injected about 1 mm into the outer thin layer of albumen lo­cated just under the shell surface. The hole in the egg shell was sealed with Scotch brand magic tape, and the eggs were revolved for 15 seconds at about one revolution per two seconds and were then allowed to rest for 4-6 hours. The eggs were then placed in a freezer at minus 20 degrees centigrade for an overnight period. The frozen eggs were transected through the site of dye injection with the use of a thin knife blade and the blow of a hammer.

Figure 2: Drawing of a midsagital section of a hen egg. The layers of albumen are indicated. The layers between thin and thick are not known to be separated by membranes but still have distince boundaries (modified from Kiple and Ornelas 2000).

Blue dye was observed at the site of dye injection but was also observed laterally through the outer layer of thin albumen for a radial distance of about a cm. The blue dye did not move into the underlying thick albumen layer. The blue dye was not de­tected in the inner layer of thin albumen or in the chalaziferous layer. These findings indicate that the outer thin layer of albumen is solvent to the blue dye and that the thick albumen layer excluded the blue dye. Given difference in the methylene blue properties of the thin and the thick albumen layer, it was decided to attempt a separation of the thick from the thin albumen so that their physical properties could be independently studied and analyzed.

The method used to separate the thick and the thin albumen was to carefully place fresh whole egg white on a plastic filter with a pore size of 2 mm diameter (Fig. 3a). Fig. 3b is a photograph of whole egg white with 5 drops of methylene blue then poured into a 15 cm Petri dish that was positioned over a lined grid paper. Thin albumen dyes blue and thick albumen remained unstained. Thin albumen passed through the pores in about 15 minutes and was collected in an underlying beaker while the thick albu­men and the two white chalazae remained on the filter surface. The two white chalazae were then removed with forceps. To further confirm the ability of the filter method to separate thin and thick albumen fractions, methylene blue was added to the whole egg white and then subjected to the filter sepa­ration procedure. The results showed that the dyed albumen passed through the filter and that the thick albumen remained al­most colorless (Fig. 4).

Figure 3: A and B, photographs of a plastic sieve used to separate thin from thick egg white. A, White albu­men fractions. B, photograph of whole egg white dyed with five drops omethylene blue then poured into a 15 cm diameter Petri dish positioned over a grid.

Figure 4: Photographs of thin and thick egg white fractions separated by filtration. Two mls of methy­lene blue were added to the egg white of a single egg which was then added to the filter surface. The frac­tion that passed through the filter was dark blue (Fig. 4 right) while the fraction on the filter surface was almost colorless (Fig. 4 left).

To determine the volume fraction of thin and of thick albumen each of these two sep­arated fractions was poured into a gradu­ate cylinder and the volume measured. A bit less than half of the total egg white vol­ume was found to be thin albumen (46%) while a bit more than half, (54%) of the total egg white volume was thick albumen. The whole white of an egg was exposed to sev­eral drops of the various dyes listed in Table 1. All of the listed dyes were selectively ex­cluded by the thick albumen.

The above finding that only about half of the egg white had dye excluding properties has lead to development of another method for assessment of the volume fraction of dye excluding egg white. The test of this meth­od was to add a few drops of dye to whole egg white and then gently mix and pour the egg white from a single egg into a 15 cm diameter Petri dish. The height of the egg white in the Petri dish was about 1.5 mm. The Petri dish was placed over a white sheet of paper with thin black perpendicular grid lines. Counting the number of grid inter­cept points under the non-dark blue areas over the total number of intercept points allows determination of the volume densi­ty fraction of dark blue and non-dark blue areas (Fig. 3B). As shown in Fig. 3B there are two areas lacking the dark-colored dye. When the whole egg white is stirred or agi­tated, there was an increase in the number of smaller non-blue areas. Repeated use of a Porter-Elvehjem tissue grinder on the dye and the whole egg white resulted in a homogenous blue dye area. The mean vol­ume density fraction of the fresh blue dyed albumen fraction was found to be 50.7 ≥ 2.2% which agrees with the 54% of methy­lene blue in phosphate buffered saline was added to the top of each sample. Therefore this intercept point counting method was used to determine the dye excluding vol­ume fraction of samples as reported further on in this report.

Physical measures of thick and of thin albumen and of deionized water at 22ºC

Table 2 summarizes data on six physical measures made on thick and on thin albu­men fractions in comparison to deionized water. The method used to get each mea­sure and the results are presented in the same order listed in Table 2.

The water content was determined by add­ing thick or thin albumen or deionized wa­ter into a pre-weighed aluminum weighing pan and then weighing. The pans were then placed in a vacuum drying oven at 90ºC. The dry weight remained constant by day six in the oven and the g water/g dry mass was then calculated. No solids were de­tected in the deionized water sample. The water content of thick albumen is 24% less than the water content of the thin albumen (Table 2). Thus, the thick albumen is less watery than the thin albumen.

Density of thick and of thin albumen was determined by first measuring their vol­ume in a graduate cylinder then weighing the mass of the volume in pre-weighed alu­minum weighing pans. Data in Table 2 in­dicate that the density of thin albumen to be significantly greater than the density of deionized water and significantly less dense than thick albumen.

The rate of methylene blue dye diffusion into test samples of: deionized water, thick and thin albumen was done by placing the samples in a tube of uniform diameter, 50 mm. A drop of the dye solution composed of methylene blue buffered saline was added to the top of each sample. The distance the blue dye diffused from the surface top was measured as a function of time. The results are presented in Fig. 5 and the statistical results of the dye diffusion rate in the thin albumen was two times slower than the dye diffusion rate in deionized water (Table 2). Linear regression analysis of the dye diffu­sion in the thick albumen indicates the dye diffusion did not give a slope value that dif­fered significantly from a diffusion rate of zero. This study indicates that significant diffusion of the dye into the thick albumen did not occur during the course of the study.Flow rate was measured by use of a glass funnel. The funnel contents exited the fun­nel through a 170 mm long tube with an in­side bore diameter of 3 mm. The tube exit was sealed with Scotch brand magic tape and 20 ml of sample was then added to the funnel. None of the sample entered the exit tube mouth until the tape was removed. The tape was then removed from the funnel tube exit and the time for all of the funnel contents to flow out of the tube was mea­sured with a stop watch. The flow rate of thin albumen was about 3.5 times slower than the flow rate of deionized water. Un­expectantly, the thick albumin did not flow. The thick albumen was made to flow by ro­tating a 3.5 mm wide spatula at one revolu­tion per second at the mouth of the funnel tube. These findings indicate that thick al­bumen has the property of a thixotropic gel.

The rate of fall of a 50 μm diameter glass sphere from the top of a 10 cm column of specimen was measured with a stop watch. The results are summarized in Table 2. The fall rate of a 50 μm diameter glass sphere with a density of 2.8 agrees with the flow rate data in Table 2 and provides additional evidence that the fresh non-agitated (non-stirred) albumen acts as a gel. The rate of fall of the glass sphere through the thin albumen was about 3-4 times slower than through deionized water. The glass sphere did not fall through the thick albumen. Al­though the glass sphere did not fall through the thick albumen a 4 mm diameter lead sphere fell through the thin albumen. Here again thick albumen demonstrates the properties of a thixotropic gel.

The pH of thick and thin albumen fractions and of fresh deionized water were measured with a Beckman pH meter. The pH of thick and thin albumen fractions were both in the alkaline range and were not significantly different. The mean pH of freshly deion­ized water was 7.36, which was significantly lower than the pH of the thick and the thin albumen fractions (Table 2).

Centrifugal force applied to thick al­bumen decreases much of its dye ex­cluding properties

It is known that most proteins have a den­sity of 1.4 g/cm³. Given the density of thick albumen is 1.027 g/cm³(Table 2) it was decided to subject thick albumen to cen­trifugal force as a means to separate a pro­tein rich denser fraction from a less dense fraction. It was postulated that some of the dye excluding properties of thick albumen would be reduced by the force of centrifuga­tion and a less dense dye solvent fraction of the thick albumen would develop towards the top of the centrifuge tube with time.Two cm long stoppered, volume calibrated and marked centrifuge tubes were loaded with thick albumen, placed in a centri­fuge and subjected to a centrifugal force of 14,000 x g. At intervals, the centrifuge was stoppered and one or more of the tubes was removed. To the sample tubes removed from the centrifuge was added a drop of methylene blue dye at the top of the tube contents. The total height of the sample in the stoppered tube and the distance the blue dye diffused from the top of the column was measured at 20 hours after the blue dye was added at the top of the sample in the tube. The volume of non-blue dyed sample and the volume of sample that dyed blue, was calculated and the results are summarized in Fig. 6. The volume fraction of non-blue decreased with time of centrifugation.

The data points in Fig. 6 gave a best fit to a one phase exponential decay, r2 = 0.97, with a half life of 89.9 minutes. These re­sults indicate that a large proportion of the blue dye excluding thick albumen was sepa­rated from the thick albumen by a centrifu­gal force of 14,000 x gravity. Clearly much of the blue dye excluding albumen can be forced to become blue dye solvent.

Effect of shear force on dye excluding properties of thick albumen

Thick albumen was allowed to remain on the plastic sieve used to separate thick and thin albumen for 15 minutes. Thick albu­men formed protrusions below the sieve bottom (Fig. 7A). The thick albumen was then poured into a dish with methylene blue dye. As illustrated in Fig. 7B, the rim of the thick albumen at the edge of the sieve pores dyed blue. Apparently, the shear force of the protruding drop of the thick albumen was enough to change the dye-excluding state of the thick albumen to a non-dye-excluding state.

Figure 7: A and B. Photographs of under surfaces of filter and protrusions of thick albumen (A). Effect of shear force on dye uptake at the edge of sieve pore of thick albumen fraction after removal from the filter (B).

Conversion of the thick albumen gel state to a more fluid sol state causes loss of some of the gel’s dye excluding properties

As reported above, the measured volume fractions of thick and of thin albumen agrees with the volume density of methy­lene blue dyed area when the dye was added to the whole egg white prior to placing in a 15 cm diameter Petri dish. Scoring of the number of non-blue intercept points over the total intercept points in an underlay­ing grid was the method used for this study. Separated thick albumen excluded most of the methylene blue dye while thin albumen had all of the area dark blue. The thick albu­men remained dye excluding when rested without agitation in a covered beaker for 20 or more hours. Data are summarized in Table 3. When thick albumen was made to flow through the funnel with gentle stir­ring 33% of the area in the Petri dish dyed blue. When thick albumen that had flowed through the funnel once and then returned to the funnel that was then covered tight­ly with parafilm was allowed to rest with­out agitation for 20 hours only 23% of the sample area dyed blue but with longer rest periods the percent that dyed blue further decreased to 10% by 72 hours and to 6% by 96 hours. The 96 hour rested sample failed to flow through the funnel giving evidence of gel reformation.

After moderate stirring of thick albumen and after three passes through the funnel 53% of the thick albumen sample dyed blue after adding two drops of the blue dye solu­tion prior to pouring into the Petri dish. Af­ter a 20 hour rest the blue dyed fraction de­creased to 40% and by 72 hours decreased to 28%.

These results indicate the conversion of the thick albumen gel-like state to a more fluid sol-like state caused loss of some of the gel’s blue dye exclusion properties. The results also indicate that some of the dye excluding properties of the thick albumen are recov­erable with time after mechanical agitation.

As noted in the previous section increased mechanical agitation caused an increase in the fraction of thick albumen that dyed blue upon exposure to methylene blue dye. The relationship between flow rate and the per­cent of thick albumen that dyed blue was therefore measured. A significant positive linear relationship between the fraction of blue dye thick albumen and the flow rate was found (p value 0.003). The greater the agitation of the thick albumen the higher the fraction that dyed blue and the faster the flow rate or decrease in viscosity.

The thick albumen gel demonstrates osmotic “like” behavior

It was hypothesized that the thick albu­men gel would increase volume when ex­posed to a hypotonic methylene blue dye containing solution and would decrease its volume when exposed to a hypertonic dye containing solution. Three methylene blue dye solutions were tested: the first was thin albumen, the second was thin albumen di­luted in half with deionized water and the third was thin albumen with sucrose added to give a saturated solution of sucrose in thin albumen. The experiment designed to test the hypothesis was simply to gently layer one of the three blue dye solutions to the top of a volume of thick albumen gel in a graduate cylinder and to measure the height of the undyed region with time after adding the blue solution. The thin albu­men that was saturated with sucrose had so high a density that it fell to the bottom of the column of thick albumen. This fraction was subsequently injected to the bottom of the column with a long needle and syringe. Thus, the height of blue dyed and non-blue column could be measured as a function of time. There was not a distinct boundary be­tween the blue and non-blue regions. The measurements reported in Fig. 8 were made where the height of non-blue color could just be detected. The height between blueand non-blue regions became more diffuse as time progressed. Fig. 8 illustrates the ex­perimental results. The total height of the thick albumen and the height of the blue dye bathing solution was measured. The height of the non-blue column increased af­ter exposed to the hypotonic solution and decreased after exposure to the hypertonic sucrose solution and remained unchanged after exposure to the thin albumen. These results demonstrate that thick albumen has osmotic “like” behavior.

Discussion

Dye exclusion mechanisms in thick egg white and in cells

The extent of dye exclusion of the thick al­bumen can be explained by one or by both of the following mechanisms: 1) formation of at least two layers of water molecules over the surface of the globular proteins that are solute (dye) excluding. 2) formation of cav­ities of water molecules within the individ­ual globular protein molecules or in spaces between the tightly packet globular proteins that cannot be reached by the vital dye. At this time neither possibility can be excluded as an explanation of the extent of dye exclu­sion of a vital dye by living cells. Given that these mechanisms are operational in tissue cells, then mechanical agitation (perhaps palpation or other physical perturbations) of a tumor could cause transformation of the gel state to a sol state and allow drug or dye to better diffuse throughout the tumor.

There are at least three possible ways to ex­plain loss of vital dye exclusion upon death of a cell: 1) a failure of membrane exclusion, 2) loss of a key cardinal adsorbent (like ATP) causing loss of a solute (dye) exclud­ing layer of polarized multilayers of water (Ling 2001), 3) change from a solute (dye) excluding gel state to a non-solute dye ex­cluding sol state as demonstrated by thick albumen. Possibility one seemed doubtful as the sole mechanism responsible for sol­ute dye exclusion because detergent or sur­gical disruption of the plasma membrane of lens fiber cells did not cause loss of dye exclusion (Cameron et al. 1988) and for more examples see Maniotis and Schliwa, 1991 and Pollack, 2001). Possibility two also seems unlikely as loss of the key cardi­nal adsorbent (ATP) after cell death did not decrease the extent of non-bulk, polarized multilayers of water, to become bulk water as Ling’s association induction theory pre­dicts (Cameron et al. 2007, 2008). Pos­sibility three remains a viable option but there is currently no direct evidence that cell death causes the cytoplasmic gel state that may exclude a vital dye, to change into a non-vital dye excluding sol state. Further studies are underway to understand the dye excluding properties of the thick egg white gel.

Gel-sol-gel phase transformation in thick albumen

The gel-to-sol and back to a gel phase transformation, as observed in thick albu­men, has also been observed to occur dur­ing amoeboid motion as reported by Mast in 1926 and 1930. Mast reported that cyto­plasm flowed as a sol from a region near the rear of the cell forward towards the advanc­ing pseudopod. The rear of the cell and ar­eas under the cell surface, along the length of the cell remained stationary, and were termed the gel state. Thus the gel state at the rear of the cell transformed to a sol state that then flowed forward through the tu­bular gel cell body towards the advancing pseudopod. As the flowing sol approached the tip of the advancing pseudopod it moved laterally and transformed back to a gel state. When subjected to agitation or increased hydrostatic pressure the thick egg albumen fraction demonstrates a gel to sol phase transformation that resembles the gel to sol transformation observed in the cytoplasm/protoplasm of the amoeba cell during locomotion. However the time need­ed for transformation of thick albumen sol back to the gel state was much longer than in amoeba.

Conclusions

Thanks is given to Anthony Lanctot and James Buchanan for help with photographs and to Professors Gary D. Fullerton and William Phillips for critical review of this report and for helpful discussion on the subject. Thanks is also given to Cathy Bun­nell for typing and to Nicholas Short for manuscript preparation.

References

Brooks, SC, Brooks, MM. The permeability of living cells. 1941

Cameron, IL Contreras, E, Fullerton, GD, Keller­mayer, M, Ludany, A, Misetta, A. Extent and prop­erties of nonbulk “bound” water in crystalline lens cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 1988. 137:125-132.

Cameron, IL and Fullerton, GD. Interfacial wa­ter compartments on tendon/collagen and in cells. 2008. Phase Transition in Cell Biology, ed. Pollack, G, Chin, WC, Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 2008, p. 43-50.

Cameron, IL, Kanal, KM, Keener, CR, Fullerton, GD. A mechanistic view of non-ideal osmotic and mo­tional behavior of intracellular water. Cell Biol. Int. 1997. 21: 99-113.

Cameron, IL, Short, NJ, Fullerton, GD. A simple centrifugal dehydration force method to character­ize water compartments in fresh and post-mortem fish muscle. Cell Biol.Int. 2007. 31: 516-520.

Cameron, IL, Short, NJ, Fullerton, GD. Characteris­tics of multiple water of hydration fractions in rabbit skeletal muscle with age and time post-mortem by centrifugal dehydration force and rehydration meth­ods. Cell Biol. Int. 2008. 32:1337-1343.

Chen, YW., Lin, JS, et al. Application of in-vivo stain of methylene blue as a diagnostic aid in the early detection and screening of oral squamous cell carci­noma and precancerous lesions. J. Clin. Med. Assoc. 2007. 70:497-503.

Fullerton, GD and Cameron, IL. Water compart­ments in cells. Methods in Enzymology. 2007. 428:2-26.

Fullerton, GD, Kanal, KM, Cameron, IL. Osmotical­ly unresponsive water fraction on protein. Cell Biol. Int. 2006. 30:86-92.

Gordon, DL, Airan, MC, Swanick, S,. Visual identifi­cation of insulinoma using methylene blue. Brit. J. Surgery. 2007. 61:363-364.

Harris, JE, Peters, A. Experiments on vital staining with methylene blue. Quarterly J. of Microscopical Science. 1953. 94:113-124.

Kiple, KF, Ornelas, KC. The Cambridge World His­tory of Food 2000. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cam­bride. P 503.

Ling, GN. Life at the Cell and Below Cell Level., 2001 Pacific Press, N.Y.

Maniotis, A, Schliwa, M. Microsurgical removal of centrosomes blocks cell reproduction and centriole generation in BSC-1 cells. Cell. 1991. 495-504.

Marconi, G, Quintian , R. Methylene blue dye of cellular nuclei during salpingoscopy, a new in-vivo method to evaluate vitality of tubal epithelium. Hu­man Repro. 1998. 13:3414-3417.

Mast, SO. Structure, movement, locomotion and stimulation in amoeba. J. Morphol. 926. 41:347-425.

Mast, SO. Locomotion in Amoeba proteous (Leidy) Protoplasma. 1931. 14:321-330.

Upile T., Fisher, C., et al. Recent technology develop­ments: in situ histopathology interrogation of surgi­cal tissue and resected margins get nuclear dye posi­tive. Head and Face Med 2007. 3:13-26.

Pollack, GH. Cells, Gels and the Engines of Life. 2001, Enner & Sons, Seattle.

Figure Legends

Figure 1: Photographs illustrating vital dye exclusion from decapsulated pig lens treated with membrane disruptive deter­gents. The round-shaped specimens are decapsulated lens. Above and to the right of each lens is the removed capsule of that lens, and above and to the left is a piece of the sclera. The letters “H” and “S” refer to the bathing solutions used. H” = Hanks and “S” = isotonic sucrose). The letters “B” and “T” refer to cell membrane disruptive de­tergents (“B” = brig 58 and “T” = triton x 100). The letter “C” refers to the unstrained control. Specimens in A (top paragraph), except the unstained controls were exposed to 0.1% nigrosin. Specimens in B (middle photograph was exposed to 0.1% trypan blue, and in C (bottom photograph, were exposed to 0.1% methylene blue. After one hour in the dye solutions, the intact lenses were removed and their stained capsule re­moved. The lens body (less the capsules) was returned to the dye solution for 2 ad­ditional hours, then removed and placed on a glass plate along with its lens capsule and a piece of sclera. As shown here, none of the treatments resulted in dye uptake or staining of the lens body, whereas all of the lens capsule and sclera specimens took up the dye. Figure reproduced from Cameron et al. 1988 with permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Figire 3, A and B: A, photographs of a plas­tic sieve used to separate thin from thick egg white albumen fractions. B, photograph of whole egg white dyed with five drops of methylene blue then poured into a 15 cm diameter Petri dish that is positioned over a lined grid paper.

Figure 4: Photographs of thin and thick egg white fractions separated by sieve fil­trations. Two mls of methylene blue were added to the egg white of a single egg which was then added to the filter surface. The fraction that passed through the filter was dark blue (Fig. 4 right) while the fraction on the filter surface was almost colorless (Fig. 4 left).

Figure 5: Graph of the rate of diffusion of methylene blue into thin and thick albumen fraction compared to deionized water. The statistical analysis of slopes is summarized in Table 2. The slope of thick albumen is not significantly different than a zero slope.

Figure 6: Relationship between the non-blue dyed volume fraction and the time each sample of thick albumen was centri­fuged at 14,000 x gravity prior to exposure to the dye. Centrifugation leads to loss of dye exclusion.

Figure 7, A and B: Photographs of under surfaces of filter and protrusions of thick albumen (A). Effect of shear force on dye uptake at the edge of sieve pore of thick al­bumen fraction after removal from the filter (B).

Figure 8: Relationship between the percent of thick albumen that dyed blue and the flow rate of the thick albumen when the al­bumen was agitated to different extents by stirring. Statistical analysis reveals a sig­nificant linear relationship

Figure 9: Behavior of fresh thick albumen exposed to hypotonic (water diluted thin albumen) or to hypertonic (thin albumen saturated with sucrose). Methylene blue dye was added to the test solutions prior to being added to the undyed thick albumen. The change in volume of non-blue thick albumen was measured with time of expo­sure.

Discussion With Reviewers

Mae Wan Ho¹: Do you see any relationship between the dye exclusion in the gel frac­tion of albumen to the exclusion zone Pol­lack et al. have identified in water organized next to hydrophilic surfaces?

Ivan Cameron: The likelihood that multi­layers of water on hydrophilic surfaces, as shown by Pollack et al., can exclude solutes in an established fact. Thus it seems likely that the same mechanism operates in the fresh thick hen egg white gel. Another pos­sible mechanism for dye exclusion in the egg white gel is formation of cavities of wa­ter molecules within protein molecules or in spaces between lightly packed and/or cross linked proteins that cannot be reached by the dye (“cavity water” see Fullerton and Cameron 2007).

Ho: Do you see the egg albumen picture of gel and sol representative of cytoplasm in general?

Cameron: Yes in that both do transform from get to sol and back to gel states but no in regard to speed of conversion between states, i.e. in amoeba conversion from sol to gel is almost instantaneous but in the thick hen egg white albumen the conversion from sol to gel took days (see Table 3 in text).

Cameron: Yes I do in that both cytoplasm and thick egg albumen undergo gel to sol and back to gel transformation associated with dye exclusion properties as also seen in vivo by Kite and Lepeschkin (cited in Ling 2001). Also data on thick egg gel, as reported in the current report, and data in a recent report by Fels et al. (Biophy. J. 2009 96: 4276-4285) both indicate that the egg albumen gel and that a mammalian cytoplasmic hy­drogel are osmotically responsive.

Ho: What do you think are the natural sig­nals for gel to sol transformation in vivo?

Cameron: I refer you to a monography (Phase Transition in cell Biology, Pollack, G.H. and Chin, W-C, 2008, Springer). Pos­sible signals include: ion changes during nerve excitation, stretch (shear-induced fluidization followed by slow resolidifica­tion) and perhaps ATP levels.

Ho: Can you say anything regarding density of water associated with the two albumen states?

Cameron: This is an important question but I have only indirect information to address the question. It seems that the proteins in egg albumen have both hydrophilic sur­face domains with water hydrogen bonding properties (denser water) and hydrophobic surface domains that does not allow direct hydrogen bonding of water molecules. The water over hydrophobic domains is there­fore less dense. Thus the amount of dense and less dense water is dependent on the extent of hydrophilic and hydrophobic sur­face area which can change with extent of protein folding and aggregation (polyme ization).

¹ Visiting Professor of Biophysics, Catania Univer­sity, Sicily

http://www.waterjournal.org/component/content/article/21-volume-2/79-cameron-1-full-text

Del Giudice, E¹; Fuchs, E C²,*; Vitiello, G³

Received 5 May 2010; revised 18 July; accepted 19 July. Published 30 July 2010; amended online 15 August 2010

Summary

When a high voltage is applied to pure water filling two beakers kept close to each other, a connection forms spontaneously, giving the impression of a floating water bridge. This phenomenon is of special interest, since it comprises a number of phenomena currently tackled in modern water science. The formation and the main properties of this floating water bridge are analyzed in the conceptual framework of quantum electrodynamics. The necessary conditions for the formation are investigated as well as the time evolution of the dynamics. The predictions are found in agreement with the observations.

1. Introduction

In 1893 Sir William Armstrong placed a cot­ton thread between two wine glasses filled with chemically pure water. After applying a high voltage, a watery connection formed between the two glasses, and after some time, the cot­ton thread was pulled into one of the glasses, leaving, for a few seconds, a rope of water sus­pended between the lips of the two glasses [1].

As a gimmick from the early days of electric­ity, this experiment was handed down through history until the present authors learned about it from W. Uhlig, ETH Zürich [2]. Although easy to reproduce, this watery connection between the two beakers, which is further referred to as ’floating water bridge’ holds a number of interesting static and dynamic phenomena [3,4,5,6,7,8,9].

At the macroscopic scale, several of these phe­nomena can be explained by modern electrohy­drodynamics, analyzing the motion of fluids in electric fields (see, e.g., the Maxwell pressure tensor considerations by Widom et al. [10], or the book of Castellanos [11]), while on the mo­lecular scale, water can be described by quan­tum mechanics (e.g., [12,13]).

The gap at the mesoscopic scale is bridged by a number of theories, such as quantum me­chanical entanglement and coherent struc­tures in water. These theories are currently dis­cussed (e.g., [14,21,22,17,25]). Recently, a 2D neutron-scattering study indicated a low-level long-range molecular ordering within a D₂O bridge [8]. Detailed optical measurements [7] suggested the existence of a mesoscopic bubble network within the water bridge.

The properties of water at these scales have drawn special attention due to their suggested importance to human physiology [15]. In this paper, we consider the interaction of an applied high voltage potential with the water molecules by exploring the suitability of a quantum field theory approach. In particular, we consider a quantum electrodynamics (QED) approach to the structure of liquid water proposed in refs. [23,24,25].

The paper is organized as follows. In section 2 the experimental set-up and the measurement methods are described, in section 3 the appear­ance of coherent structures in liquid water as an outcome of QED is discussed. In Section 4 we analyze in the same framework the formation of a mesoscopic/macroscopic vortex in liquid wa­ter as a consequence of the application of high voltage.

Sections 5 and 6 are devoted to the analysis of the process of formation of the water bridge, in­cluding a comparison between theory and ex­periment, and to the understanding of some of its properties, respectively. Some conclusions are finally drawn in Section 7.

2. Experimental

For the high speed imaging experiments per­formed, flat platinum electrodes were sub­merged in the center of the beakers, one set to ground potential (cathode), the other on high voltage, up to 25kV dc (anode). For the thermo­graphic measurements, cylindrical silver elec­trodes were used. The beakers were filled with deionized H₂O (‘milli-Q’ water, conductivity < 1μS/cm).

A Phywe high–voltage (HV) power supply (’Hochspannungs–Netzgerät 25kV’, Order No 13671.93) was used with a 42nF ceramic capaci­tor connected in parallel to the electrodes. The voltage was measured by a potential divider of 500MΩ/500kΩ to ground level. Since the volt­age generator provided a limited current out­put, the electric current was stable at 0.5 mA, while the voltage continuously adapted. The images in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 were recorded with a FLIR 620 thermographic camera (FLIR Sys­tems, Boston, MA, USA).

The images in Fig. 3 and 4 were recorded with a Photron SA-1 high-speed camera (Photron Ldt, Bucks, United Kingdom). Fig. 3 was recorded with 2000 fps exposure time, after 0 ms (a, ref­erence point), 198 ms (b) 268 ms (c) 306 ms (d) 536 ms (e) 551 ms (f) 626 ms (g) and 1020 ms (h). Fig. 4 was recorded with 1000 fps, 1/1000 s exposure time, after 0 ms (a), reference point), 510 ms (b) 520 ms (c) 570 ms (d) and 630 ms (e). In all cases, the high voltage was manually increased from 0 to 15 kV (+) dc, and the images were taken at the moment of bridge or vortex creation, respectively, which was between 7 and 11 kV.

3. Coherent Structures in Liquid Water

In this section we focus our attention on the gauge invariant properties of a system, like the water bridge, which exhibits complex dynam­ics. A key motivation for this approach arises from the fact that gauge invariance is the basic requirement to be satisfied when dealing with systems where charge density and electric po­larization density play a relevant role.

It is apparent that the discussion of the gauge invariant properties can be done only within a field description of the structure and dynamics of water. As a matter of fact, many models in­troduced so far to describe water are based on molecular dynamics, which is an approxima­tion that does not consider the field features of water (for reviews see e.g., [26,27]).

A conceptual step in this direction was the ex­perimental proof for quantum entanglement in liquid water at room temperature: Chatzi­dimitriou–Dreismann et al. (1995) did Raman light-scattering experiments [16] on liquid H₂O – D₂O mixtures, which provided experimental evidence for the quantum entanglement of the ion OH^- (and OD^-) vibrational states.

In 1997, a first experimental proof of nuclear quantum entanglement in liquid water [17] was published, again, by Chatzidimitriou–Dreismann et al. by the means of inelastic neu­tron scattering. The interpretation is disputed [18,19]. Another approach where water is con­sidered a ‘hot quantum liquid’ was proposed in 2006 [20].

In the frame of the theory of liquids, the mod­el of liquid helium proposed by Landau [28] is appealing. Within this model the liquid ap­pears as made up of two phases, one coherent (having components oscillating in phase), the wother non-coherent (having independent com­ponents as in a gas). There is no sharp space separation between the two phases since a con­tinuous crossover of molecules occurs between them. This dynamical feature makes the experi­mental detection of the two-phase structure a delicate task indeed.

As a matter of fact, an experimental probe – that has a resolution time longer than the typi­cal period of the particle oscillation between the two phases – produces a picture that is an aver­age of the conformations assumed by the sys­tem during this time. This produces the appear­ance of a homogenous liquid [29,30]. On the contrary, the two-phase structure would only be completely revealed by an instantaneous measurement. In a realistic situation, an obser­vation lasting a short-enough time could give evidence of the chunks of the coherent phase, which could succeed in remaining coherent during the whole time of the measurement.

This kind of observation would give some evi­dence of the existence of a two-phase structure, but would not be enough to give the full instan­taneous extension of the coherent region. Re­cently, two articles [31,32] in favor of the pro­posed model appeared. In ref. [31] evidence is presented of two phases of water having differ­ent densities and orderings. Ref. [32] discusses a comprehensive account of the experimental data supporting the existence in liquid water of aggregates quite larger than those accountable in terms of customary electrostatic theories. In the frame of QED [23,24,25], a description of liquid water exhibiting two interspersed phases in agreement with these last experimental find­ings has been worked out. The two phases are:

i) a coherent phase made up of extended re­gions, the so-called “coherence domains” (from now on referred to as CDs) where all water mol­ecules oscillate in phase between two configura­tions.

ii) ii) a non-coherent phase made up of inde­pendent molecules trapped in the interstices among the CDs.

The coherent oscillations of the molecules be­longing to the first phase are maintained by the electromagnetic (e.m.) field self-produced and self-trapped within the CD, and occur between two definite molecule states. So far two such processes have been identified:

a) In a process analyzed in Ref. [23,24], the os­cillations occur between two rotational levels of the water molecule. This produces correlations as large as several hundred microns. This also gives rise to a common dipole orientation of the molecule electric dipoles which, as a conse­quence of the rotational invariance of the aque­ous system, gives rise to a zero net polarization. However, when the rotational symmetry is bro­ken by an externally applied polarization field, such as that which occurs near a hydrophilic membrane or near a polar molecule, a perma­nent polarization develops. The range of per­manent polarization depends on the amplitude of the external polarization field and, therefore, on the physical state of the surface. The applica­tion of a voltage would obviously increase this kind of correlation.

b) In a process analyzed in Ref. [25], the os­cillations occur between the ground electronic state of the molecule and the excited 5d state at Eexc=12.06 eV, just below the ionization thresh­old at 12.60 eV. Each CD has a size given by the wavelength of the resonating e.m. mode

.

The frequency of the common oscillation of molecules and field is 0.26 eV (in energy units) at T = 0K, much lower than the frequency, 12.06 eV, of the free field. This dramatic softening of the e.m. mode is just the consequence of the nonlinear dynamics occurring in the process [23,25,24].

Non-aqueous molecules cannot participate in the resonant dynamics, so they are excluded from the CDs. In particular, atmospheric gases are expelled from the CD volume and give rise to nano- and/or micro-bubbles adjacent to the CD. When the dynamics causes a decoherence of a CD, such bubbles, too, would disappear, since their components are able to dissolve again in the non-coherent fraction of water.

The amount of the coherent fraction in the liq­uid is decreasing with temperature. At room temperature the two fractions are approximate­ly equal [25]. In the bulk water, molecules are subjected to two opposite dynamics: the elec­trodynamical attraction produced by coherence and the disruptive effect of the thermal colli­sions, so that, whereas in the average the rela­tive fractions are time independent, at a local, microscopic level each molecule is oscillating between the coherent and the non-coherent re­gime. The coherent structure is thus a flickering one, so that an experiment having a duration longer than the lifetime of a CD probes water as a homogenous medium.

In the coherent state in the fundamental con­figuration, whose weight is 0.87, all the elec­trons are tightly bound, whereas in the excited configuration, whose weight is 0.13, there is one quasi-free electron. Consequently, a CD con­tains a reservoir of 0.13 x n quasi-free electrons. At room temperature n is about 6 x 106. In Ref. [33] it has been shown that this reservoir can be excited, producing cold vortices of quasi-free electrons confined in the CD.

The energy spectrum of these vortices can be estimated following the mathematical scheme outlined in ref. [33]. Similarly, it can be seen that the lowest lying excited state has a rota­tional frequency of a few kHz and the spacing of the levels has the same order of magnitude. The lifetime of these vortices can be extremely long because coherence prevents random (ther­mal) fluctuations and because the conservation of the topological charge prevents the decay of the vortex in a topologically trivial state.

We finally remark that in a coherent region, the pure gauge nature of the e.m. potential field

(1)       

where λ is the gauge transformation function, implies that the applied electric potential V is proportional to the time derivative of the phase Φ (see below): . Here and throughout the paper we omit the space-time dependence of the variables whenever no misunderstanding arises therefrom. When necessary we adopt the notation x ≡ (x,t).

The two above-mentioned dynamics occur si­multaneously and produce a non-trivial inter­play that gives rise to a number of phenomeno­logical situations:

1) Bulk water in normal conditions. In this case, the dynamics a) are phenomenologi­cally irrelevant due to the rotational symme­try of the system. The dynamics b) only are at work, producing instant CD structures as large as 0.1μm, which are exposed to the disruption of the thermal collisions.

This gives rise to a Landau-like situation where water appears homogeneous in experi­ments having a long-enough resolution time and exhibiting deviations from homogeneity at smaller resolution times. Moreover, the flicker­ing nature of the coherent structure prevents the appearance of the long time features of the coherent dynamics.

In the case of the bulk water, the experimental check of the theory is the correct prediction of the thermodynamic processes, which do not de­pend on the space distribution of the coherent molecules, but on their total number only. The flickering space structure of CDs implies that the corresponding ensemble of microbubbles described above should be a flickering one too, as found by the experimental observations.

2) Interfacial water. In this case, dynam­ics a) are at work and their interplay with dy­namics b) gives rise through nonlinear dynam­ics to a stabilization of the coherent structure, which is much more protected against thermal fluctuations.

The equilibrium between the two phases is shifted toward coherence. Since an extra en­ergy gap is added, molecules are kept aligned by the total polarization field produced by the dynamics a) that compels the radiative dipoles produced by the dynamics b) to stay aligned.

The smaller CDs (0.1 μm) of dynamics b) are tuned together by the much more extended co­herence produced by dynamics a), so that the global coherent region, thanks to the polariza­tion field produced by the surface, gets wid­ened up to several hundreds of microns. This is the span of the CD dynamics a). A confirma­tion of this QED prediction is provided by the experimental findings of the group led by G. H. Pollack [34], which confirm results obtained more than sixty years earlier [35]. They show that layers of “anomalous” water (EZ water) as thick as 500 μm appear on hydrophilic sur­faces.

The observed anomalies include the exclu­sion of solutes, a highly reducing power (cor­responding to a negative redox potential of several hundreds of millivolts), and widely dif­ferent optical and electrical properties. These anomalies are compatible with those expected from the coherence domains of dynamics b) [25]. A much more detailed discussion of this important point will be given elsewhere.

3) Bulk water in special conditions. Ref. [36] describes the possibility of the onset of a coherence among CDs induced by the tuning of the phases of the oscillations of the CDs, which in normal water are not correlated. This tun­ing of the different CDs can also be induced by the application of an external e.m. field.

A recent 2D neutron scattering study indicat­ed a preferred molecular orientation within a heavy water bridge [8]. This observation can be interpreted in accordance with the dynam­ics a). Moreover, this prediction could account for the experimental observation of a so called “Neowater” produced by an Israeli group [37] and compatible with similar results of Russian [38] and Ukrainian researchers [39]. This im­portant point, too, will be discussed at length elsewhere.

The stabilization of the array of water CDs im­plies the stabilization of the corresponding en­semble of microbubbles, which therefore form a stable and ordered array. This result has been reported in Ref. [37]. Katzir et al. connect the ordered nature of the neowater structure with the appearance of the ordered network of mi­crobubbles; they report as a typical size of the single microbubble a value comparable to the CD size. Thus QED provides a rationale for this surprising phenomenon.

However, the cases 2) and 3) are different. In the case 2) the superposition of the two coher­ent dynamics gives rise to a continuous coher­ent region, which doesn’t contain non-coherent zones. Therefore, the re are no bubbles. In case 3) there is a coherent ensemble of CD, which al­lows the presence of interstices and microbub­bles. In this paper we concentrate on describing what happens in the particular case of the float­ing water bridge. This discussion will be done in the next section.

4. Formation of a Mesoscopic/Mac­roscopic Vortex

The formation of the floating water bridge is triggered by the application of a high voltage V. Let us discuss which are the consequences of such a physical operation on a coherent struc­ture such as the one described in the previous section. We split the e.m. potential Aμ into the electric and magnetic part. In cgs units we have

(2)    

(3)    

where e denotes the electron charge. According to Eq. (2) the application of a voltage implies a strong variation of the phase Φ which adds up to the original phase of the unperturbed CDs.

Should the applied potential be high, the volt­age generated phase would be dominant with respect to the original phase, which might be regarded as a small perturbation of the total phase. The new phase spans over a macroscop­ic region and is thus space-correlating all the phases of the CDs enclosed in the macroscopic region. A coherence among the CDs emerges.

Moreover, in this new macroscopic coherent region, a definite non-vanishing gradient of the phase has appeared, that, in turn, according to Eq. (3), produces a non-vanishing magnetic po­tential.

The presence of a magnetic field depends on the rotational or irrotational character of the geom­etry of the problem. One can show [40, 41] that consistency with the gauge invariance requires that

(4)    Φ(x) → Φ(x) – eα f (x)

where ἁ is a constant depending on the wave re­normalization constant and the transformation function f(x) is a solution of the equation ∂²f(x) = 0. We use x ≡ (x,t). The macroscopic current ju,cl is given by [40, 41].

(5)  

where a_μ,cl(x) is the classical e.m. field, which has acquired the mass m_v (the Anderson-Higgs-Kibble mechanism [42]). One has ∂_μ j_μ,cl(x) = 0.

It is crucial here to stress that the presence of quasi–free electrons in the elementary CDs fully characterizes the dynamical regime of the system. Since these quasi–free electrons are confined within the CDs, their motion is neces­sarily a closed one, which implies that a mag­netic field is generated.

Moreover, the beaker system exhibits a lo­cal non-trivial topology. That is because the (charged) electrode in the beaker center pre­vents the paths closed around it from shrink­ing to zero. That is, of course, provided one does not draw these paths around the electrode tip. This fact produces a macroscopic vortex.

Such a vortex is indeed present in both beakers and can be visualized with a thermographic camera as shown in Fig. 1. Thus, an extended coherence, on a scale much larger than the original 0.1μm, is the consequence of the ap­plication of a high voltage. The extended coher­ence is also the consequence of the absence of an electric current, as can be seen in the short time just after engaging the voltage yet before the appearance of the bridge. This effect can be understood as a variant of the well-known Bohm–Aharonov effect [43].

Such a phenomenology is described in formal terms by the fact that the function f(x) may in­deed carry a topological singularity describing the occurrence of a vortex and given by

(6)    f(x) = arctan(x2/x1).

Eq. (6) shows that the phase is undefined on the line r = 0, with r₂ = x₁² + x₂², consistently with the phase indeterminacy at the electrode site due to the specific system geometry.

When f(x) carries a (vortex) topological singu­larity, it means that it is path-dependent (not single-valued). When f(x) is a regular function, i.e., when it does not carry a topological singu­larity, the current j_u,cl vanishes [40,41]. This, in turn, implies zero e.m. field F_μv = ∂_μa_v - ∂_va_μ.

In conclusion, in the dynamical scenario de­picted above, the action of turning on the high potential compels the CDs to join the observed giant vortex, whose core position is determined by the electrode position. The closer the CDs are to the vortex core (the electrode), the stronger the action pushing them to join together.

Since the applied potential is a decreasing func­tion of the distance from the electrode, periph­eral CDs (those nearest to the beaker wall) have a better chance to preserve their individuality. (They are, however, in a non–equilibrium re­gime due to the criticality of the dynamics going on).

Figure 1: Thermographic visualization of the macroscopic Vortex in the beakers under application of high voltage before the water bridge is formed. The time interval between the images is 5 sec, the tem­perature scale is calibrated to the emissivity of water (0.96).

The presence of the other electrode in the grounded beaker—and the consequent exis­tence of a preferred radial direction on the join­ing line between the two electrodes—breaks the cylindrical symmetry around each one of the electrodes.

The radial velocity of the slightly (~1K) colder vortices is ~ 1°/s – 3°/s and could be observed independently of the potential applied. The rotational direction was counter-clockwise in both beakers. In Fig. 2, the symmetry break due to the influence of the second beaker is visual­ized by thermography.

Fig. 2a again shows the slight cooling of the vortices. After a certain threshold (between 9 and 11kV), a cooling along the joining line of the electrodes as shown in Fig.2b appears (2-3K), and the rotation stops. The cooling is then followed by electric discharges heating the bea­ker walls (Fig. 2c) and finally leads to the water bridge formation (Fig. 2d). The dark spots on the anode in Fig. 2c and d are water droplets, which were ejected from the beakers during the process.

The vortices occur independently of the value of the applied potential. The potential acts as a trigger inducing the phase transition. The inner dynamics of the water then control the system evolution and its vorticity. This explains the ob­served independence of the turbulent patterns of the strength of the applied potential.

Finally, we note that the above description which starts from the analysis of the microscopic dy­namics is consistent with the results obtainable by use of the classical electro–hydro–dynamics (EHD) field equations, originally proposed by Melcher and Taylor [44] and completed by Sav­ille [45], describing the effects of a high voltage applied onto a ”leaky dielectric.”

Figure 2: Thermographic visualization of the bridge formation mechanism. First, the macroscopic vorti­ces appear (a), then the water cools down at the joining line of the two electrodes (b). With the first sparks (c), the water heats up, and finally forms a water bridge (d). The time interval between the images is 5s, the temperature scale is calibrated to the emissivity of water (0.96). The dark spots on the electrodes in (c) and (d) are water droplets which were ejected during the process.

5. Formation of the Water Bridge

It is well known [42] that within a coherent re­gion a magnetic field should vanish (Meissner effect), provided that the size of the region ex­ceeds a threshold (London penetration length). Indeed, the magnetic field penetration in the coherent region decays exponentially, as de­scribed by the London equation

(7)  

where λL is the London penetration length (see, e.g., Ref. [46]). This property is the consequence of the regularity of the phase in the coherent re­gion (far from the boundaries), which produces the vanishing of the magnetic field [cf. Eq. (5) and the comments following Eq. (6)]. Near the boundaries the phase acquires a singular behav­ior due to inhomogeneities and this produces a non-vanishing magnetic field [cf. Eq. (6)].

In the case of liquid water, λ_L has a value much larger than the size 0.1μm of the water CD, in agreement with the well-known fact that mag­netic fields are not expelled from normal water.

However, when the peculiar dynamics outlined in the previous section are at work, the coher­ent region could become so far extended that its size overcomes the London penetration length. In this case a phenomenon of levitation analo­gous to the one observed with superconductors might occur.

Actually, in the presence of the Meissner effect, a gradient of the magnetic inductance μ appears since μ = 0 in the coherent region and equals about one outside. A magnetic levitating force F_lH = -H²gradμ appears, provided that H² is in­homogeneous.

At the air water interface, the presence of the macroscopic vortex (described above) produc­es a high value of H2 below the water surfaces. Consider that, in the atmosphere above the sur­face, H² is much lower and corresponds to the ambient magnetic field.

Consequently, a net upward force develops that raises the CD up. Since the extended coherent region is the one close to the beaker wall, mag­netic levitation would occur along the wall of the vessel where the size of the coherent regions is larger. These magnetic forces would occur only in the vessel with the high positive poten­tial where the vortex can develop.

In the grounded beaker, however, the high posi­tive potential will be absent.

Moreover, an electric levitation force

(8) F_le = -E²gradε

may appear, since the dielectric constant ε is much larger in the CDs than in the non-co­herent region. As a matter of fact, if we model the non-coherent region as an ensemble of in­dependent electric dipoles, the Fröhlich for­mula would give us room temperature ε = 15. The dielectric constant of the CDs, in contrast, could be estimated to be 160 [47]. Since at room temperature the two fractions are almost equal, the two above estimates result in an average di­electric constant ε_obs of ε_obs = (160/2) + (15/2) = 87.5 which is in good agreement with the ex­periment.

Along the line joining the two electrodes, the electric field is very strong and reduced below the water surface by a factor 1/ε whereas it is at full strength above the air water surface. A net upward force is thus generated according to Eq. (8).

We conclude that the application of a high electric voltage, through the complex dynam­ics outlined above, gives rise to two levitations: electric and magnetic. These levitations occur along the wall of the vessel with the positive electrode. Only the electric levitation can occur in the grounded vessel.

This prediction is in agreement with the obser­vation of a larger probability of water-column formation. The water-column formation occurs in the HV vessel rather than in the grounded vessel. This is shown by high-speed visualiza­tion in the examples given in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. For both figures, fringe projection technique is used to contour the bridge and thus enhance its visibility (for details see [7]).

The levitating drops of water, being coherent, are surrounded by the evanescent electromag­netic field, filtering out of the coherent cores. The tail of the evanescent field spans for a length of the same order as the CD radius, so that it could act as an interaction field among the drops within some distant. This distance is in the order of the droplet radius, namely some microns. The possibility of the formation of a string of interacting water droplets emerges and eventually gives rise to the water bridge.

Figure 3: High speed visualization of the water bridge formation with glass beakers and fringe projec­tion. (a) shows the beakers before the voltage is applied, (b) – (d) show the levitation of the water in both beakers leading to droplet formation, (e)–(f) show the ejection of a jet from the HV beaker leading to the bridge formation (g), which is stabilized in (h). The water on the HV side (right) is levitated stronger than on the grounded side (left) due to the fact that the water is lifted both electrically and magnetically there, whereas on the grounded side, the levitation is due to electric forces only.

Figure 4: High speed visualization of the water bridge formation with Teflon beakers with fringe projec­tion. (a) shows the situation without high voltage, in (b) and (c) the fringe projection shows the rising of the surfaces, in (d) levitation and droplet formation are shown, and in (e) a connection is finally formed.

6. Properties of the Water Bridge

The water bridge thus represents a sequence of interacting coherent droplets extracted from the water vessels. The electron coherence illus­trated in Section 3 points to the CDs as reser­voirs of quasi free electrons. On the CD bound­aries a ponderomotive force

(9)  

acts upon any particle having charge q and mass m present there. Eq. (9) can be easily un­derstood considering that the Hamiltonian of a particle immersed in a vector potential gives rise to a field energy distribution

which produces in turn the force

F_p = -gradU

The ponderomotive force Eq. (9) pushes the quasi-free electrons outwards with a force many thousand times larger than that acting on the parent molecules. As a consequence, a double layer of charges appears on the boundary of the CDs. The applied strong electric field induces a twofold motion along the bridge. The positive cores of the CDs are pushed along the bridge from the anode to the cathode. This gives rise to a simultaneous transport of mass, whereas the outer, negatively charged, layer slides toward the cathode.

We should remember that the component drop­lets of the water bridge have been extracted from a macroscopic vortex so that their mo­tion along the bridge arises from the superpo­sition of the vortex motion and the electrically induced motion. The final result is a helicoidal motion around the axis of the bridge, a sort of traveling vortex.

According to the topological considerations developed in section 3, the axis of the bridge should be the site of a topological singularity. In other words, no coherence should exist on the axis. Consequently, a negative gradient of the coherent fraction should be observed when going from the outer surface to the axis of the bridge. This prediction is consistent with ob­servation of a negative gradient of the speed of sound in the same direction [9]. Actually, since the coherent region is very much correlated, the speed of sound should be larger in the coherent region than in the non-coherent one.

The peculiar optical properties of the bridge are described in Ref. [7], with particular regard to the change of the polarization angle of linearly polarized light passing through the bridge. As suggested in Ref. [4], this change can be con­nected to both reflection at micro-bubbles un­der the Brewster angle [7], or, as shown in a very recent work, to birefringence due to long-range low-ordering within the bridge [8]. A detailed discussion of this in the framework of QED will be given elsewhere.

Experimental observations [7] have shown that cooling—achieved by, e.g., the addition of ice cubes to the beakers—destabilizes the bridge. This can be easily explained within the pro­posed model. The coherent fraction increases when temperature—and the depth of the inter­stices among them—decreases.

Consequently, the excitation of rotational mo­tion of the CDs becomes more and more diffi­cult. This is the result of the drag produced by the interaction with neighboring CDs through the evanescent fields protruding from inside of them.

At the freezing point, the drag becomes so in­tense that it prevents the formation of vortices. As explained above, the existence of these vor­tices is crucial for the presented analysis; their reduction explains the destabilization of the phenomenon.

Finally, the suggested ordered network of mi­crobubbles would be a natural consequence of the presence of a permanent extended coher­ence as discussed in section 3.

7. Conclusions

Much work is still needed to understand the wealth of the results revealed by the water bridge. However, in this paper we have shown that a consistent framework for understanding this surprising phenomenon can be provided by QED.

Without a doubt, water is one of the most com­mon and most studied substances in the world. The properties of water at mesoscopic scale have drawn special attention lately due to their suggested importance to human physiology [15].

Still, present theories have difficulties explain­ing more than a few of its properties at once, and no theory so far can satisfyingly explain one lately rediscovered phenomenon, the floating water bridge.

The QED approach to this phenomenon pro­vides a possible theoretical background for many of the bridge’s features, such as the vortex formation upon applying a potential; the occur­rence of a cold region prior to the rising of the water; the asymmetric rising of the water in the beakers; the stability of the bridge; the temper­ature dependence of this stability; the correla­tion of charge and mass transfer; the formation of micro and nanobubbles and consequently; and the findings by optical and neutron scatter­ing

Therefore, although unconventional in the field of electro-hydro-dynamics (EHD), quantum field theory can be a powerful tool to bridge the gap between microscopic descriptions and field theories.

This has, until now, been conceived as a quite difficult task [11]. Moreover, some of the de­scribed effects can be found in other experi­ments as well, such as the macroscopic vortices discussed herein.

These vortices, hitherto unexplained, are known as EHDs. Furthermore, an application (as a mo­tor) was discussed recently [48]. Also, the Pol­lack group suggested formation of a clear zone next to gel surfaces [15].

Recently, Cabane et al. stated that water has thus far been a fantastic ”graveyard” for theo­ries that are clever but wrong [27]. It may be appropriate here to stress the well-known fact that no theory can in principle describe reality in all its aspects.

Nevertheless, to the knowledge of the authors, no other theory has been able to describe the floating water bridge as correctly, or in as pre­cise detail, as the quantum field theory. There­fore, it may be prudent to assume that QED is a good choice to describe and understand this special interaction of water with electric fields.

Special Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their grati­tude to Prof. Jakob Woisetschläger for the per­formance of the presented experiments.

Acknowledgments

With great pleasure, the authors wish to thank Profs. Marie-Claire Bellissent-Funel (Labora­toire Léon Brillouin, Saclay), Eshel Ben-Jacob (Tel Aviv University), Cees Buisman (Wetsus – Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology), Friedemann Freund (NASA SETI Institute, Mountain View CA), Karl Gatterer (Graz University of Technology), Franz Heit­meir (Graz University of Technology), Jan C.M. Marijnissen (Delft University of Technology), Laurence Noirez (Laboratoire Léon Brillouin, CEA-CNRS/IRAMIS, CEA-Saclay), Gerald H. Pollack (University of Washington), Alan Soper (Rutherford Appleton Laboratories, Oxford), José Teixeira (Laboratoire Léon Brillouin, CEA-CNRS/IRAMIS, CEA/Saclay), as well as Luew­ton L.F. Agostinho, Ingo Leusbrock and Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs (Wetsus, Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology) for the ongoing discussion on the water bridge phenomenon (in alphabetic order). Partial financial support from University of Salerno and Istituto Nazio­nale di Fisica Nucleareis also acknowledged.

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Discussion With Reviewers

John D. Swain¹ : In section IV there is the claim that the beaker system has a nontrivial topol­ogy, but this can’t quite be true since the volume of water in the beaker, even with the electrode excluding some, is contractible and thus topo­logically trivial in the strict sense of the term. I’m sure what is meant is that there is, in some sense, a locally nontrivial topology near the electrode—i.e., there are loops around the elec­trode which are sort of nontrivial in the sense that they can’t be shrunk to zero in a plane that is punctured by the electrode. But one can cer­tainly shrink them if one pulls them around the tip. It might be better to say (if I understand the intention of the authors correctly) that there the topology is nontrivial in some local sense very near the electrode. (By “local” I mean that one does not allow loops drawn around the elec­trode to be pulled very far from it).

Emilio Del Giudice, Elmar C. Fuchs and Gi­useppe Vitiello: We perfectly agree with the referee observation. Indeed, the beaker system exhibits a local non-trivial topology since the (charged) electrode in the beaker center pre­vents the paths closed around it from shrinking to zero (provided, of course, one does not pull these paths around the electrode tip). We have included a short sentence concerning this point in the paragraph after Eq. 5.

Swain: Equation 9 for the ponderomotive force is often written (in tex notation) as F=-\frac{q^2}{4m\omega^2} grad |\vec{E}|^2. This has the advantage of being gauge invariant. If one wants to write it in terms of the vector potential A, I suppose what is being assumed is A oscillating at frequency omega and E=-dA/dt being used with the other factor of 1/2 coming from some time averaging.

Is this correct? If so, one might want to con­sider writing it gauge invariantly, mentioning that the field is oscillating, and that an average is being taken. I know the ponderomotive force assumes a time-varying field, but this may not be immediately obvious to the reader who is not a bit of an expert.

At the moment, one has to know a fair bit of physics to see what this might mean. As it stands, for a general case, one could think that one could make a gauge transformation and get into all sorts of trouble. For example, around a solenoid one has no B, but clearly an A which cannot be made to vanish everywhere (Aha­ronov- Bohm effect) and still there would be no force—I think the assumed time dependence (if I understand this correctly) should be noted.

Similarly, the energy being U=\frac{q^2}{2m}||\vec{A}|^2 would make no sense with­out the time-dependence being made clear. For example, with no time-dependence of A, there would be no electric field and this could be con­fusing to the non-expert.

Del Giudice, Fuchs and Vitiello: We agree with the referee also on this point. We have included in the text a sentence (see the paragraph after Eq. 1) clarifying that throughout the paper, space-time dependence of the variables is understood. Thus, when no misunderstanding arises, we omit writing them explicitly. When necessary we adopt the notation .

Vladimir Voeikov: Why do you look for a quan­tum explanation to the exclusion of the possi­bility of a classical one ?

Del Giudice, Fuchs and Vitiello: An essential step in the formation of the water bridge is the ear­ly appearance of vortices in the water, which are submitted to a high voltage. The result is a quantum feature that exists according to the general relationship coupling the electromag­netic potential to the space-time derivatives of the phase of the matter field. This relationship implies a wave-like energy transfer that does not fade with the distance. This implies a long-lasting adaptive tuning among the oscillations of molecules.

The motion of molecules in a classical frame­work would be diffusive and consequently would be quite random. The existence of coher­ence involving a large number of molecules is a quantum feature without a classical analogue.

Moreover, the ordered raising of large amounts of water—located at the origin of a stable wa­ter bridge—implies the appearance of levitating forces, such as those produced by the Meissner effect in superconductors. Classical mecha­nisms, such as those implied by field induced sprays of water, would hardly produce the for­mation of stable arches. That is due to the fact that classical mechanisms would demand a long-range attraction among the droplets of the sprayed water.

Voeikov: Could the dynamics of formation of the water bridge be also at work in the process of formation of living structures?

Del Giudice, Fuchs and Vitiello: This question could not be answered in a rigorous way at the present moment. However, in living organ­isms there are many examples of quasi one di­mensional structures, dynamically built, which disappear at death. This is the point at which, presumably, the overall coherence of the system fades away. An example is given by the cell cy­toskeleton, whose elements are made up of self-piped water coated by biomolecules resonating with the e.m. field trapped inside. A model of cytoskeleton incorporating such a feature is de­scribed in Del Giudice E., Doglia S., Milani M., Vitiello G., “A dynamical mechanism for cyto­skeleton structures” in Interfacial Phenomena in Biological Systems (Ed. M. Bender) Marcel Dekker Inc, New York (1991), pag. 279-285. Del Giudice E., Doglia S., Milani M., Vitiello G., Electromagnetic field and spontaneous symme­try breaking in biological matter, Nucl. Phys. B275 [FS 17], 185 (1986).

In any case, this question needs much further investigation.

¹ Professor of Physics, Northeastern University, USA and CERN, Switzerland

http://www.waterjournal.org/component/content/article/21-volume-2/77-fuchs-full-text

Kozyrev's Mirrors

Interview with Alexander V. Trofimov, MD By Carol Hiltner

Imagine standing under a vast, scintillating aurora borealis, and seeing it change colors as you changed your thoughts. This exact situation led Russian medical doctor Alexander V. Trofimov into his groundbreaking research on human consciousness, in collaboration with Vlail P. Kaznacheev, and following in the footsteps of the great 20th century physicist Nikolai Kozyrev.

Essentially, Kozyrev devised reproducible experiments that prove the existence of a “torsional energy field” beyond electromagnetism and gravity, which travels much faster than light. He called it the “flow of time.” Others, Einstein among them, have called it “ether.” Others call it “zero point energy.”

Within this “flow of time,” the past, present, and future all exist at the same time, and in every place. This discovery sets the stage for all psychic phenomena to be scientifically explainable. Trofimov and Kaznacheev have, for the past thirty years, been experimentally developing the practical explanations, and have made some surprising discoveries.

When I visited Trofimov’s laboratories at the International Scientific Research Institute for Cosmic Anthropo-Ecology in Novosibirsk, where he is general director, he enthusiastically showed us his two main experimental apparati — two hollow, metal, person-sized tubes, equipped with mattresses and drinking water.

The first, dubbed “Kozyrev’s Mirrors,” reflects thought energy (which exists within the “flow of time”) back to the thinker. This apparatus, invented by Kozyrev, gives access to intensified consciousness and altered states, including non-linear time — similar to a deep meditational state.

Trofimov’s work has consisted of “remote viewing” experiments across both distance and time. They discovered that results are more positive when the “sender” is in the far north, where the electromagnetic field is less powerful. So they invented a second apparatus that shields an experimental subject from the local electromagnetic field. Within this apparatus, their subjects can reliably access all place and time — past, present, and future — instantaneously. Construction specifications for these apparati are published in Russian scientific literature.

Among Trofimov and Kaznacheev’s conclusions are:

1) our planet’s electromagnetic field is actually the “veil” which filters time and place down to our everyday Newtonian reality — enabling us to have the human experience of linear time,

2) in the absence of an electromagnetic field, we have access to an energy field of “instantaneous locality” that underlies our reality,

3) that the limiting effect of the electromagnetic field on an individual is moderated by the amount of solar electromagnetic activity occurring while that person was in utero, and

4) that once a person has accessed these states, his or her consciousness remains so enhanced.

The implication is that the global electromagnetic soup of cell phones, radio, television and electric appliances actually impedes our innate communication abilities. The further implication is that expanded human consciousness is mechanically producible now, which raises the vast ethical question of how these apparati can be most beneficially used.

Carol: Alexander, why did you begin doing research in this field?

Trofimov: I very clearly remember the moment. It was March, 1975. After my post-graduate education, my first expedition as junior scientific researcher was to Dixon — a small village in the far north, which is located above 73 degrees latitude. It was to study adaptation of human organism to the conditions of the far north — a great experiment of U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. I worked with Kaznacheev, who was the creator of the civilian department of this Academy. I began my investigation as a cardiologist, studying the reaction of the cardiovascular system and the importance of different magnetic conditions.

I stepped outside our hospital to see the aurora borealis, which was like a cone over our building. This first impression was wonderful! I felt that we were interacting, that what I thought was changing the colors of the aurora borealis. I didn’t know whether it was my consciousness or cosmic consciousness. Only later did we learn about cosmic consciousness. But it was a beginning for me.

I continued my investigation as a doctor, and from approximately 1990, with Academician Kaznacheev, we began new cycle of work — the study of cosmic consciousness. Let me show you Kozyrev’s Mirrors. This apparatus is the grandfather of Kozyrev’s Mirrors — the first generation. Now we have seven generations. Carol: But why is this called a mirror? Where is the mirror?

Trofimov: We use the law of optical reflection — which also applies to streams other than light. When the surface is curved, according to this law, the energy is focused.

Kozyrev was also an astronomer. He created a small mirror to put inside a telescope, which he focused on one of the stars. And he programmed it for three times: one year in the past, the present, and one year in the future.

Carol: And how did he program that?

Trofimov: He simply calculated, using some mathematical methods. He had the know-how to calculate where it was, where it should be, and where it is — its projected location. So he realized that the star is present everywhere — in the past, present, and future.

Carol: But that is common knowledge. What was the discovery?

Trofimov: We wanted to prove it in a scientific way. Kozyrev proved it in astronomical terms. Our task was to prove it in biological terms. So the legacy of Kozyrev was that, if people could create such kinds of apparatus that are capable of creating density of the energy of time, from this point they could have the opportunity to visit any place in the universe.

We created such an apparatus, and called it Kozyrev’s Mirrors. It takes the energy not out of the stars, but out of the human being — being a star. (Carbonaceous life forms, such as those on Earth, are one stage of a star’s evolution.) And these streams coming out of human beings, they are not allowed to go everywhere in the space, but they are concentrated here, creating this density of the streams of time and energy. But a human being should be specially prepared, and when he spends some time inside, he finds himself in a particular state of mind. He can travel to any part of the planet. And there is a special “ray” enabling him to be in this or that part of the planet. We used this kind of apparatus for our experiment for distant communication with Dixon.

Basically, there was a person inside the mirrors who was given symbols that he was supposed to project, and there were people all around the world who were supposed to receive.

Carol: Were they also in mirrors?

Trofimov: No, they were in an ordinary life situation, but they knew the time. There were three special sessions for investigating the role of television and radio. The person inside the mirrors projected the symbols and they made a television recording of it. They showed these recording to people from Dixon. They also made television recordings of three sessions in which a person projected symbols, but was not inside the mirrors. And almost 80% of the people who took part in this experiment received the information. The results using the television recording were even better than straight from the mirrors. Another interesting detail: the people who were receiving the information were asked to simply switch on their television, without even sound or images, but just power, and it gave the opportunity to receive this information more effectively. So this space around the planet, and television and radio space interrelate. And they approached the world with special precautions so that people would know the interrelationship of space and radio waves. It was very important. So, fifteen years ago, they made this research and realized these consequences.

Carol: Well, the whole planet is an electronic soup, with radio waves on all frequencies.

Trofimov: Yes, exactly. So, to the next room … This is a “cosmobiotron” clinical device. There are two here — the only ones in the whole world. Inside this apparatus, the electromagnetic field is reduced almost to nothing, which allows us to go anywhere in space. Just to be free, out of the magnetic field of the earth.

Carol: How does it do that?

Trofimov: Inside this shell are several layers of a special steel called “permalloy” that has magnetic “receiving qualities,” that is sensitive to magnetism. Inside the tube, the magnetic field is diminished 600 times.

Currently, the Earth’s magnetic field has 49,000 nano-Teslas. It has been decreasing by about 50-70 nano-Teslas per year. By the end of the millennium, we’ll have only 100-200 nano-Teslas. So, this apparatus allows us to emulate the situation that we will have 1000 years in our future.

[He sat down on the open end of the tube]. Where I’m sitting now, the magnetic field is how it will be on Earth in 100 years. As I move further into the apparatus, the magnetic field is decreased, as it will be on Earth further into the future. We measure the results every 15 centimeters, which is equivalent to 100 years. In a thousand years, we will be somewhere in the middle of this apparatus.

This apparatus is the most important research instrument for assessment of the evolutionary consequences of the fluctuation of Earth’s magnetic field.

Carol: What is the result of that diminished magnetic field?

Trofimov: As the force of the magnetic field is decreased, the sun’s energies will penetrate more.

Carol: So the magnetic field protects us from the solar rays?

Trofimov: Yes, and also cosmic rays — galactic protons, for example. The less protection there is, the more particles can reach us.

Carol: Is the ozone layer a different mechanism?

Trofimov: Somewhat different. The ozone layer filters only the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.

So we have a profound opportunity to really emulate what will happen with any living creature or human being, century by century — how we will co-exist with these energies from space. What will happen? Either our mind reserves or extra abilities will open, or on the contrary they will be limited, and some catastrophe will happen. So basically, this is a like a theatrical stage, where we can see how the fate of human life will play in a thousand years.

We have been working more than 15 years, so we do have results. Part of our results have been published, and we are preparing to publish more.

Now I will say something important. As we investigate brain activity — either with an electro-encephalogram, or by assessing brain functions like intellect level, memory, and other functions, we realize that we currently use only 5% of the capacity of our brains throughout our whole lives. And then, after we spend some time inside the apparatus — in a space without magnetism — we repeat the same tests, and we see a drastically different picture. We see that our mind’s additional reserves and abilities are activated. We see an increase in memory capacity, increased IQ, and changing zones of electric activity of the brain.

Carol: Is this because of the reduction in magnetic field?

Trofimov: When the magnetic field is decreased, we see an increasing ability to use the reserves and capacity of the human brain, and that’s good. But there is still a question of whether it is good for everyone. How quickly should these reserves be opened in real life, and for what would these resources be used. Why should we access these resources? What is the practical use of this opportunity? Just opening the resources is not a panacea.

We need a scientifically rigorous forecasting model — not a purely theoretical one — about what will happen with us, and how this knowledge can be used right now to educate. For example, how long should a person be inside to increase his memory capacity without waiting a hundred years. We are now doing practical research on how to make use of this phenomenon.

There’s another important point. When a person is inside, his brain function is in direct correlational dependency not only with solar energies, but with galactic rays. So we thereby open a request for information from the galaxy.

We believe that this is the mechanism by which cosmic human consciousness is currently being opened, with the decreasing electromagnetic field. This shift is opening people’s “cosmophile” properties — properties that we are lacking right now in this “cosmophobe” world. But we cannot bring the whole of humanity onto this cosmophilic life-raft, because we are only in the experimental scientific stage that allows us to make a forecast and back it up experimentally.

According to the Russian writer and philosopher Gumilev, balance or imbalance in the number of cosmophobes or cosmophiles in any society or ethnic group defines the fate of this society or ethnic group.

So what can we do? For the survival of our civilization, we have to foster the cosmophiles. And for this, we need to open these resources. While we can give people this possibility, we cannot order or force them to be cosmophiles. We need a well-coordinated system to guide people to this source.

Alexander V. Trofimov, MD, is General Director of the International Scientific Research Institute for Cosmic Anthropo-Ecology, which was founded in 1994 for scientific investigation, and is located in Academic City, Novosibirsk, Russia.

Vladimir L. Voeikov
Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

Respiration is a chemical process whereby cells use oxygen to release energy; a technical term for “breathing”. According to common knowledge aerobic respiration is restricted to glucose oxidation to carbon dioxide and water (a process reverse to photosynthesis) in which energy is stored in the form of ATP molecules that are used to provide energy for all vital activities. It is also generally accepted that atmospheric oxygen ensuring respiration emerged as a by-product of plant photosynthesis, while oxidizable organic compounds appeared in the course of pre-biotic evolution in oxygen-free milieu.

However, recently there appeared evidence that water molecules in aqueous systems may decompose to H2 and O2 under the influence of mechanical and other low density energy factors in rather mild conditions (close to neutral pH values, normal temperature, ets.). Intensity of this process is high enough to provide accumulation of oxygen in atmosphere up to contemporary levels in relatively short historical period without participation of biological photosynthesis. On the other hand there appeared evidence that oxygen can directly oxidize water to hydrogen peroxide. In many reactions of direct oxidation by oxygen of its substrates free radicals emerge as intermediate products. Such reactions are accompanied with generation of electronic excitation energy equivalent to energy of visible and even UV light photons and may be monitored by registration of ultra-weak photon emission from systems where they go on.

We used the method of single photon counting for the analysis of the properties of pure water, artesian waters, tap water and other kinds of aqueous systems, including aqueous solutions of simple bioorganic molecules in which processes of their spontaneous autoxidation develop. We have shown that in many kinds of artesian water contacting with air there develop a process of autoxidation of water, and that at least part of energy released as it goes on does not dissipate but rather may accumulate in water and may be released as photonic energy or used for the performance of chemical work.

Formally this phenomenon may be defined as “Respiration of water”. Different patterns of photon emission including non-linear oscillatory ones may be observed dependent on a particular aqueous system. The process of accumulation of energy in water equivalent to the levels of electron excitation energy, the patterns of photonic emission oscillations turned out to be highly responsive to very low intensity external factors including irradiation of aqueous systems with radiations of ultra-weak intensities. The probable role of these processes for the biological properties of drinking water and water participation in vital processes is considered.

Taken as a whole the new information on phenomena related to oxidation-reduction processes arising in water and aqueous systems calls for the serious re-evaluation of many currently dominating biological concepts related to all levels of organization of biological systems – from molecular to biospheric ones.

Semichina L.P.
Russia, Tumen Federal University
Proposed ideas are based on the results of the research of water properties in the tissues of animals in-vivo using dielectric L-method developed by the author [1-2]. In this approach subjects under study are placed in a weak vortex electrical field of the L-cell of the solenoid measuring coil with a field strength E = 1-100 microV/cm and fre-quency 10 kHz – 40 MHz. In accordance with [2] these fields are too weak to change the orientation of the bio-molecules. That is why L-method allows to distinguish input from polarization effect of water solutions inside the tissues of biological subjects having high moisture with the background of many polar molecules and evaluate the condition of these solutions based on frequency  , where they have maximum of dielectric loss tangent (tg). Shift of tg of water solution in any subject under the influence of different factors to the higher frequency band indicates the decrease of structurization, while shift to the lower frequency band on the contrary indicate the increase of structurization.

Study of the tissues of animals based on abovementioned approach revealed the increase of the level of water structurization for different organisms in the process of evolution development. The highest level of water structurization was found for mammalians and in particular humans.

This highly structured state of water solution is inherent only to the living animals and is disturbed under the influence of stresses, Ultra Violet, Ultra High Frequency and strong electromagnetic fields. It is well known that both stress and electromagnetic rad-iations increase the risk of oncological, cardiovascular and other diseases.  This indicate to the correlation between the health condition and the state of water in tissues. So we can tell about positive effects of restoration of damaged water structure in the tissues of animals.

We suggested to solve this problem using weak electromagnetic fields of the par-ticular frequency and amplitude [3]. But on a large-scale for mass-population this problems may be solved by using an appropriate food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.
Result of investigation of food products was negative up till the latest time. Intro-duction into water of any impurities including juices and syrups of fruits, berries and vegetables led to the decrease of water structurization. The only exclusion was found to be honey. Solution of water with honey is nearer to the tissue water on their dielectric properties compared with initial water or any other solutions.

Testing of medications on their properties to change the condition of distilled wa-ter revealed strong difference even for one and the same drug produced by different companies. There are drugs which practically do not change the structure of water as well as others which totally destroy it. For example, the former are glucose and some antibiotics, the latter are Fervex and Coldrex. In accordance with our data the fast ef-fects of Fervex and Coldrex are provided by the strong destruction of structured state of tissue water which decreases the speed of exchange processes. But if the human or-ganism will not be able to restore the structure of water in tissues, damaged both by the illness and by medications, circumstances may be quite negative.

Testing of different cosmetic products (shampoo, liquid soups, balsams, and creams) produced by different companies demonstrated that all of them change the structure of water to some extend. This is illustrated by the experimental data for sev-eral creams (fig.1). As we see from the graphs the tg maximum frequency for all creams is higher compared with honey. So these cosmetic products are unable to restructure the damaged structure of tissue water.

It is also important to note that the amplitude of tg maximum for all cosmetics was lower compared with honey. The amplitude of tg maximum is defined by inter-molecular interactions in the particular substance, so the lower amplitude for the cosmetics may indicate the wrong choice of ingredients with low inter-molecular interaction and hence low effectiveness. Plus, this indicates the absence of synergism between components of the particular cosmetics. The synergism effect means that composition of the two or more surface- or biologically active substances is more effective compared with each individual component. This effect is related to the increase of inter-molecular interactions in the mixture and may be detected by the increase of tg for the mixture [2].

We believe that using developed in [2] approach it is much easier to find the syn-ergetic mixture of ingredients for different applications.

References
1.    Семихина Л.П. Способ определения диэлектрических параметров воды и ее растворов в низкочас-тотной области с помощью L-ячейки. Патент РФ № 2234102. //БИПМ. №6. 2004.
2.    Семихина Л.П. Низкочастотная диэлькометрия жидкостей в слабых вихревых электрических полях. Докторская дисс. Санкт-Петербург. 2006. 230 с.
3.    Семихина Л.П. Способ изменения свойств протонсодержащих объектов и устройство для его реали-зации. Патент РФ № 2196320 // БИПМ. 2003. №1(часть II). С. 346.